The Contribution of Religion to Protest Mobilization on Digital Social Networks

Abstract

This article presents an in-depth analysis of the intertwining of religious and protest expression on digital social networks in Morocco. By exploring the mechanisms by which religious discourse is used to mobilize, articulate claims, and catalyze collective action online, we highlight the importance of the religious dimension in the landscape of contemporary protest. Through a mixed approach of the content analysis of a Facebook page, we demonstrate that online protest mobilization with a religious substance is a multidimensional phenomenon that shapes real socio-political dynamics, and we illustrate the power of religious discourse to structure and legitimize claims, mobilize around shared values, and strengthen the sense of community belonging.

1. Introduction

Digital social networks have radically transformed the dynamics of individual expression, social mobilization, and the contestation of social and political norms (Bennett and Segerberg 2012; Chen et al. 2021; Earl and Kimport 2011; Tufekci 2017). This profound transformation is the result of several specific features of these digital platforms, which have, on the one hand, largely democratized the ability to express oneself publicly, with increased accessibility opening up new avenues of expression for marginalized voices (O’Byrne 2019), and enabled an unprecedented diversity of perspectives to be heard and, on the other hand, facilitated the creation of virtual communities based on common interests, shared identities, collective actions, or common struggles that enhanced the potential for social mobilization on an unprecedented scale (Harmatiy et al. 2021).

However, this transformation has also been accompanied by significant negative effects, particularly concerning modified advertising on these networks. The use of altered techniques, such as microtargeting, deepfakes, and astroturfing, has complex and often negative implications and remains a growing concern among researchers and communication experts (Pariser 2012; Zuboff 2019). Consequently, from a media-pessimistic perspective, some researchers have highlighted the dangers and challenges that accompany this transformation, emphasizing the detrimental impacts on society, human relationships, and mental health (Suler 2004; Twenge and Campbell 2018).

In spite of this, digital social networks have reduced barriers, generating an ease of engagement that has greatly broadened the support base for many causes and enabled social movements to rapidly mobilize masses of people around common demands (Jost et al. 2018). Likewise, these networks have introduced new modes of protest and resistance, with a new capacity to reshape strategies of demand and make social movements more agile and responsive to events and opportunities (Caren et al. 2020; Carty 2015).

In this context, religion emerges as an active component capable of articulating demands, mobilizing supporters, and catalyzing collective action (Ciolek 2004; Evolvi 2021). This presence of the religious online is the result of several interconnected factors that converge to give it a significant influence. Digital social networks have provided an unprecedented space for the dissemination and discussion of the religious (Campbell and Tsuria 2021; Hazim and Musdholifah 2021). Individuals can now share teachings, reflections, and interpretations online, with accessibility enabling the reinforcement of religious identity within virtual communities (Cheong et al. 2012). What is more, the virality and rapid spread of online religion have influenced and mobilized “believers” around common causes and values (Bowman et al. 2021; Islam 2019).

In addition, digital social networks have provided a space for the expression of claims in the public domain, where religiously charged users can defend positions, articulating the religious as a moral framework, and thus strengthen their impact and relevance in online public debate (Battista 2024; Evolvi 2022). What is more, these digital social networks have enabled individuals to find community support and a sense of belonging through the sharing and discussion of religion, a social dimension that has strengthened its power online and contributed to its ability to mobilize individuals around shared values and practices (Ehlebracht 2022; Foltz and Foltz 2003).

This article looks at how the religious manifests itself in protest expression on digital social networks in Morocco, with an in-depth analysis of the complex mechanisms underlying this dynamic. First of all, it was crucial to recognize that religion is not limited to ritual practices or theological beliefs; it is deeply rooted in people’s daily lives and social interactions. On digital social networks, this multifaceted aspect of the religious unfolds in a particularly dynamic way, offering a space where religious expressions can coexist and interact with contemporary social concerns.

This article thus explores the multiple ways in which the religious intertwines with online protest expression in the Moroccan context. This is concerned with manifestation through the diffusion of socially engaged religious narrative, where religious values are invoked to support specific social claims and where individuals use references to the religious to legitimize their claims, presenting them as aligned with the ethical or moral principles of their faith.

This article also examines how the religious is integrated into online mobilization processes, questioning the correlation between protest and contestation activities on digital social networks and phraseology inspired by religious traditions and the contribution of this association to strengthening a sense of community and anchoring collective action.

By exploring these dynamics, this contribution will highlight the implications of the interaction between the religious and protest expression on digital social networks. It aims to highlight how this integration of the religious can exalt digital mobilization and to what degree the incorporation of the religious can broaden the base of support by mobilizing communities or bringing an additional moral dimension to a given cause.

In sum, this study offers an in-depth analysis of how the religious intertwines with protest expression on digital social networks in Morocco, exploring the different forms this dynamic can take and its implications for actual mobilization. It highlights the importance of considering the role of religion in online social movements, both to understand motivations and to grasp the complexity of societal interactions in the digital space.

2. Problem and Methodology

2.1. Context of the Study

Digital mobilization on digital social networks has been widely studied in various fields, including sociology, communication sciences, and media studies. However, the religious aspect of this mobilization remains relatively unexplored, and the effort made in this direction is often tainted by the spatial and temporal orientation of the theoretical and methodological approaches used, giving rise to several blind spots that require further investigation. Existing studies have mainly focused on online activism and the use of religion in digital mobilization, highlighting the growing importance of this dimension in the contemporary digital landscape.

In this context, it is worth noting the theoretical analysis of digital mobilization presented in (Bennett and Segerberg 2012) highlighting the role of digital media in the personalization of protest politics, with case studies of contemporary social movements.

Along the same lines, (Tufekci 2017) explored how digital social networks, particularly Twitter (currently network X), have transformed the dynamics of mass protests, examining the mobilization strategies, power structures, and political implications of these movements. Similarly, a series of case studies on the use of digital channels for political and social mobilization was presented in (Earl and Kimport 2011), with an examination of the challenges and opportunities associated with online activism.

Furthermore, and concerning the role of religious discourse in social mobilization, some authors, like (Devine et al. 2015), have been interested in probing the multiple influences that religion can have on channels of mobilization, identifying, on the basis of qualitative case studies, the key factors of religion likely to catalyze social mobilization (theological resources, religious spaces, and the interaction of these two elements with the general context) and supporting that the boundaries of the religious dimension of social mobilization are permeable and that the religious component of social mobilization is inseparable from its social and political context.

On another front, and with regard to the specific dynamics of mobilization with religious substance and the role of religious beliefs and practices in protest participation, some authors (Yi et al. 2020) have turned their attention to examining the implications of this mobilization, exploring how religious identities influence protest practices. They found that religious belief and practice have a significantly positive effect on the propensity to take part in protest movements but also on actual participation in these actions.

Other studies have explored the interactions between religion and the global public landscape, highlighting the dynamics of religious mobilization on digital platforms and their impact on community experience. At this level, the contribution by (Lim and Sng 2020) examined how religious groups use digital social media to forge online communities and how religion is integrated into the everyday lives of “believers”, using the concept of the intercontextuality of online communication, which allows religious users, according to the authors of this study, to communicate regularly about their values, enabling them to align their religious concerns with wider social issues.

Other authors, such as (Wijanarko 2021), have examined changes in religious mobilization in the digital age, analyzing the dimensions of the use of religious language and symbols as expressions of socio-political articulation, negotiation, and contestation and the challenges posed by the use of social media by religious communities and their participation in the public sphere.

In the field of academic research in France, for example, the theme of online activism and the use of religion in digital mobilization remains relatively emerging. Although understudied to date, it has presented significant opportunities for French researchers, who have explored diverse facets from a variety of angles. On this front, a few authors (Darieva and Kormina 2023) have explored how faith-based claims, acts, and initiatives evolve in public spaces, where they have also identified ways of mediating acts of religious activism.

Other studies (Zahra 2020) have looked at the qualitative examination on social networking platforms of a hashtag concerning the Muslim community, as a successful model of activism on digital social networks fighting against the degradation of Islam’s image. The main conclusion here is that hashtags launched by Muslim activists originate from digital social networks, exacerbating and having unprecedented power to stir up political and social movements.

On another level, other researchers (Bratosin and Ngoulou 2024) have aimed to explain denunciation as a form of communication in relation to protest. They point out that the influence of media coverage on religious diasporas has produced a questioning of religious authority that is forged through public denunciation practices in digital social networks.

While this literature review provides a diverse basis for understanding these interactions between religion, technology, and social mobilization in a general context, further research is needed to fill in the gaps specific to the Moroccan context and to better grasp the complexities of digital mobilization with religious content on a local level.

In this vein, research prospects remain wide open, particularly with regard to understanding the local specificities and dynamics specific to Morocco and the impact of the growing and ramified use of digital social networks in Moroccan society, focusing on the transformations affecting the links between religion and citizen participation online and the analysis of discourses and mobilization practices with religious substance on digital platforms in Morocco, with a view to understanding how religion is integrated into online social movements and how religion intertwines with protest expression on digital social networks in Morocco and what the implications of this interaction are.

2.2. Research Questions and Methodological Approach

This study aims to deepen the understanding around how religion influences mobilization and protest expression on digital social networks in Morocco, highlighting specific discourses, practices, and issues related to this context and focusing on the role of the religion and its implications for online citizen participation and social mobilization by exploring the following research questions:

RQ 1. What are the distinguishing features of religious-based mobilization on digital social networks in Morocco, and what are the main themes and religious values most often mobilized in online protest expressions in Morocco?

RQ 2. What is the specific role of religious discourse in online mobilization in Morocco, and to what extent does this discourse help to amplify protest claims and mobilization on digital social networks?

RQ 3. What are the perceptions and attitudes of Moroccan citizens toward online religious mobilization?

RQ 4. To what extent do mobilization and protest expression with a religious substance on digital social networks in Morocco affect the public landscape?

Four hypotheses can be put forward to clarify this issue:

H1. 

The main themes mobilized in online protest expressions in Morocco are related to political and societal issues, often interpreted through a religious prism. And the distinctive features of mobilization with a religious substance on digital social networks in Morocco include a strong use of religious symbols, references to beliefs expressing faith, and emotional rhetoric.

H2. 

Religious discourse amplifies protest claims and plays a central role in social mobilization on digital social networks in Morocco by providing a moral and ethical framework for collective action, legitimizing protest claims through religious references, mobilizing a broad audience around shared religious values, and reinforcing a sense of community.

H3. 

Users in Morocco have varied perceptions of online religious mobilization, and attitudes toward it shape interactions and influence choices of participation and support.

H4. 

Religious mobilization and protest expression on Morocco’s digital social networks are helping to generate real transformations in the public sphere, transforming virtual debate into real, concrete leverage for action.

In sum, the main objective of these hypotheses is to propose avenues of reflection and research to explore the relationships between religion-based mobilization on digital social networks in Morocco and various aspects of Moroccan society, such as citizen attitudes and public opinion, and thus shed light on understanding the impact of online religious mobilization on Morocco’s public landscape. So, to study one of the Facebook pages mobilizing for protest actions, focusing specifically on the role of religion as a lever of mobilization, a mixed methodology might be appropriate. A mixed approach combining qualitative and quantitative methods is particularly relevant for exploring this theme, in that it enables a thorough and balanced understanding of the phenomenon under study by examining both subjective and objective aspects and general trends, as well as combining and contrasting qualitative and quantitative results to obtain a holistic understanding of the issues under study (Creswell and Plano Clark 2017; Tashakkori et al. 2020).

The qualitative phase uses content analysis techniques to identify emerging themes, patterns, and trends from the data collected. It will seek to categorize the data according to key concepts and build typologies to better understand different perspectives.

The quantitative phase uses statistical analysis techniques to explore the relationships between the variables studied and test the hypotheses formulated.

2.3. Data Collection and Corpus Building

As part of this study, we focus on the Facebook page known as “Morocco Protest Watch | مرصد الاحتجاجات في المغرب” Created on 20 April 2011 (with more than 23,000 followers and 22,000 “Like” mentions on the counter until May 2024), it is one of the mouthpieces of the “February 20 movement” in Morocco1, dedicated to reporting on events linked to demonstrations and social movements across the country.

The corpus of data consists of the digital traces of this Facebook page, for a period of 12 months (from the beginning of April 2023 to the end of March 2024), i.e., around 2900 publications and comments by the page’s administrators and audience. In addition, our work consisted in collecting, as far as possible, via the Talkwalker2 solution, all the information and metadata relating to these publications, which are then analyzed and visualized (creation of graphs) using the Python programming language, calling on certain data visualization libraries, notably Matplotlib and Seaborn, and also the graphical visualization possibilities available on Talkwalker.

It should be stressed that the choice of this “generalist” page, withno declared affiliation or apparent leaning toward a group or entity with a religious label, was made for several reasons, including, first and foremost, the quest for objectivity and the intention to avoid any biased interpretation, based in this respect on the fact that a page with no specific religious affiliation is less likely to promote a particular agenda or favor one religious aspect to the detriment of others, thus guaranteeing a balanced and impartial analysis of mobilization with a religious substance. Therefore, by focusing on a page of this nature, we seek to better grasp the complex dynamics influencing mobilization with a religious substance in Morocco. This includes understanding the interactions between religion and other societal factors, which would enable a more holistic analysis of mobilization with a religious aspect on digital social networks.

On the other hand, the choice of a specific 12-month time slot (from the beginning of April 2023 to the end of March 2024), which is a period marked by a peak in activity following a period of low liveliness and quasi-stagnation, was made for several reasons including, first and foremost, the quest to maximize data accuracy, where with a more pronounced and more easily detectable fluctuation in activity, it would be more likely to accurately capture data variations relevant to the study. Second is the quest for the identification of emerging trends, where after a period of stagnation, sudden changes in activity may indicate the emergence of new trends or patterns of behavior, which could help to better understand the dynamics at play and identify the underlying factors influencing them. Third is the desire to reduce background noise, where by focusing on a specific time slot, it is possible to focus on data more relevant to the study and thus obtain more significant results, facilitating their interpretation and providing more relevant insights.

3. Results and Discussion

First, we look at quantitative metrics relating to the main themes mobilized in the publications on the page under study. First of all, we divide the time frame under study into two semesters: S1 (from the beginning of April to the end of September 2023) and S2 (from the beginning of October 2023 to the end of March 2024). The idea was to isolate the period marked by the events of the Israel–Gaza War of 2023–20243, which began on 7 October 2023, that are very resounding and even hegemonic news events.

Thus, the following tables (

Table 1. Quantitative indicators of theme recurrence during semester S1.

Theme	Recurrence
آش واقع في المغرب (What is happening in Morocco)	4.60%
prison pour offense (prison for offense)	2.87%
المغرب يمنع الأكاديميين والصحفيين المسجونين من القراءة (Morocco bans jailed academics and journalists from reading)	1.15%
الرئيس الفرنسي إيمانويل ماكرون (French President Emmanuel Macron)	1.15%
المعتقلين السياسيين وسجناء الرأي (Political prisoners and prisoners of conscience)	1.15%
cost of living	1.15%
الملك محمد السادس (King Mohammed VI)	1.15%
بيغاسوس البرلمان الأوروبي (Pegasus European Parliament)	1.15%
مراسلون بلا حدود (Reporters Without Borders)	1.15%
نظام الملك الحسن الثاني (King Hassan II’s regime)	1.15%

and

Table 2. Quantitative indicators of hashtag recurrence during semester S2.

Hashtag	Recurrence
#FreePalestine	48.45%
#اللهم_نستودعك_اخوتنا_في_غزة (God, we entrust you with our brothers in Gaza)	30.41%
#FreedomPalestine	3.61%
#WeStandForPalestine	3.61%
#WeStandWithGaza	3.61%
#BoycottIsrealProducts	2.58%
#BoycottCocaCola	2.06%
#BoycottIsraeliGoods	2.06%
#غزة (Gaza)	1.55%

) reveal the most dominant themes and hashtags in the page’s text dataset during semesters S1 and S2.

In the light of these results, it appears that the themes mobilized in protest and mobilization expressions on the Facebook page under study are closely linked to momentum and current events. Events and changing priorities play a role in determining which themes emerge and are amplified in online conversations.

First is reactivity to current events, where online controversy is often triggered by specific events, such as political crises, social events, escalations of violence, or other significant developments. Participants in online debates are quick to react to these events, which are often interpreted through a religious prism (ex. #اللهم ـ نستودعك ـ اخوتنا ـ في ـ غزة—God, we entrust you with our brothers in Gaza), using them as catalysts to express their reactions or solidarity. Second is the agenda setting imposed by current events, where echoing traditional media, social networking platforms play a crucial role in highlighting certain issues or causes, which can influence the themes that emerge in online protest expressions. Issues that receive wide media coverage or go viral on digital media and social networks can inspire online protests and fuel discussions on these themes. And third is the evolution of priorities, where socio-political momentum can also influence the evolution of priorities within online protest movements, in the same way that a landmark event can shift the attention and energy of protests toward new issues or demands, thus altering the themes that dominate online protest expressions.

Furthermore, and with regard to the distinctive characteristics of mobilization on the page in question, Figure 1 shows that mobilization is characterized by the frequent use of religious expressions and prayers. The page’s administrators and audience express their concerns, hopes, and demands using language imbued with spirituality and devotion. Prayers are often used as a means of asking for divine protection and support or the resolution of problems. Similarly, the publications and discussions on the page feature references to religious beliefs that express faith and devotion. These references include sacred texts and religious traditions, which inspire and motivate the online community to engage in collective action (e.g., boycott) or express solidarity, thereby creating a kind of social capital (Candland 2000). Also, the expression on the page in question is often characterized by an emotional rhetoric that makes use of metaphors and religious symbolism (Yilmaz and Morieson 2021). Messages and publications use spiritual analogies, Koranic stories, or symbolic images to evoke emotions such as compassion, hope, determination, or resilience. This emotional rhetoric reinforces the link between online mobilization and the community’s spiritual and moral values.

In sum, the distinctive features of mobilization on the page in question reflect a strong influence of religiosity and spirituality in online expressions of protest (and in social mobilization in general (Devine et al. 2015; Mylek and Nel 2010)). The use of religious expressions and prayers, references to beliefs expressing faith and devotion, and emotional rhetoric based on religious symbolism help shape the identity and values of the online movement, while mobilizing and motivating participants around common causes.

All in all, the findings presented above support our first hypothesis (H1) and suggest that the dominant themes in online protest expression in Morocco are mainly centered on social and/or political issues, often interpreted through a religious lens, thus lending a spiritual dimension to the claims. Distinctive features of religious-based mobilization on digital social networks in Morocco include a marked use of religious symbols, frequent references to religious beliefs expressing faith, and often emotionally charged communication.

We now turn to the role of religious discourse in mobilization on digital social networks. In terms of activity (Figure 2) and volume of engagement (Figure 3), it is a truism to note the catalytic role of religious discourse in mobilization on the Facebook page under study.

Publications with religious content also tend to receive more likes, shares (Figure 4), and comments (

Table 3. Activity and commitment indicators for semesters S1 and S2.

	S1	S2
Publications	174	2763
Rate of evolution (compared with previous half-year)	−27.8%	1587.9%
Commitment	21	13,478
Rate of evolution (compared with previous half-year)	−62.5%	64,180.9%

) than non-religious posts. This indicates the existence of a moral framework that resonates with the audience’s values and beliefs, contributing to rapid and extensive dissemination.

In short, religious discourse on digital social networks not only catalyzes activity and engagement but energizes social movements by providing a moral and legitimate atmosphere that fosters the strengthening of collective identity and incites sharing. These characteristics make it a lever for mobilization, particularly in contexts where religion occupies a central place in people’s lives. These findings highlight the fact that the integration of religious themes into discourses of protest and demand is a key element in strengthening the impact and reach of social movements.

Ultimately, the above findings answer our research question RQ2 and corroborate our hypothesis H2. It emerges that religious discourse amplifies protest claims and plays a central role in mobilization on digital social networks in Morocco. Indeed, it provides a moral and ethical framework for collective action, legitimizes claims through religious references, mobilizes the public around shared religious values, and reinforces the sense of belonging to the community.

In what follows, we turn to an analysis of the lexical field used during the high-activity semester S2 (Figure 5).

The preponderance of religious messages, particularly prayers, indicates that mobilization on digital social networks in Morocco is strongly based on a spiritual dimension. Prayers are expressions of faith and devotion used to invoke divine support in contexts of social contestation. This reflects the deep integration of religion into people’s daily lives and their recourse to spirituality as a source of comfort and collective mobilization (Bayat 2013).

Similarly, the frequent references to religious texts underline the importance of these texts as sources of moral authority in the claims discourse. By anchoring their claims in sacred texts, audiences legitimize theirs actions and reinforce their messages in a context of shared cultural and religious references (Da Costa et al. 2023; McVeigh and Sikkink 2001). This process reinforces the notoriety of online movements and their ability to federate by invoking widely respected and accepted principles.

In the same vein, calls for divine intervention and guidance show that individuals seek to integrate their faith into their responses to crises and challenges. This reflects a worldview in which religion plays a central role in managing adversity (Foy et al. 2011; Frijters et al. 2024). By soliciting the divine in their messages, audiences express a spiritual dependence and a willingness to find divinely inspired solutions to social and political problems (Campbell and Tsuria 2021; Isetti et al. 2021).

In this regard, the praise of God’s power and greatness in the messages contributes to a representation of God as the ultimate source of justice and power. This helps to reinforce the legitimacy of the demands by anchoring the movement in a perspective of divine justice, supporting the idea that their actions are aligned with divine will and, consequently, are just and necessary (Wisman 2021).

Moreover, the expression of gratitude to God indicates an acknowledgement of the positive aspects perceived in adverse situations, which can help to balance individuals’ perspectives and to maintain a positive spirit. This gratitude can strengthen communities’ resilience by reminding them of the beneficial aspects of their faith and life, even in times of contestation (Chalmiers et al. 2023).

Furthermore, the use of religious rhetoric to convey messages of hope and resilience shows how religion serves as a psychological and emotional driver. Religious symbolism is one of the most powerful tools for encouraging perseverance and solidarity among the audience. This helps maintain cohesion and motivation within the community. At this level, the themes of hope, patience, and perseverance are central items in the controversy and thus serve to provide coping mechanisms in times of crisis (Cinjee and Schaap-Jonker 2022). Their presence in online advocacy messages shows how religious values are used to encourage a constructive response to adversity, helping to maintain motivation and commitment to the community.

At the same time, the inclusion of social and political topics shows that online mobilization is holistic in nature, where the religious fact serves as a framework for addressing and contesting broader societal issues. Hence, the central role of religious discourse in digital mobilization underscores its importance as a source of moral authority and community cohesion (Devine et al. 2015). By providing an ethical framework for collective action, the religious fact helps shape and direct demands, giving movements a sense of legitimacy and authenticity (Khalil 2024). Religious references facilitate mobilization by uniting individuals around shared values and beliefs, reinforcing a sense of belonging and solidarity. This shows how religion can be a powerful catalyst for mobilization, using digital social networks as platforms for disseminating and amplifying messages.

In conclusion, these findings show that online mobilization with a religious substance in Morocco uses this substrate not only as a means of comfort and individual motivation but also as a tool to legitimize and strengthen social movements. The strong presence of religion in these discourses reveals its crucial role in organizing and energizing online protest movements.

In what follows, we will be looking at perceptions and attitudes toward online engagement with religious substance. To this end, we will be exploring the emotional pulse of the audience by counting commonly recognizable emoticons that clearly represent different emotions such as joy, sadness, anger, surprise, and fear.

Thus, Figure 6 reveals the audience’s emotional convulsions, which are clearly pronounced during semester S2, which is, as previously indicated, a period strongly imbued with religious narrative.

In view of the fact that it accounts for the vast majority of responses (55.27%) (

Table 4. Breakdown by emotion.

Labels	Anger	Sadness	Joy	Fear	Surprise
Results	55.27%	24.79%	11.11%	8.55%	0.28%

), we feel it would be interesting to focus on the emotion of “anger” in order to gain a better understanding of the perceptions and attitudes toward online religious-substance mobilization and to shed light on the dynamics of interactions on digital social networks.

This choice was also made in view of several other considerations, including the fact that analyzing expressions of anger allows us to identify specific sources of discontent that fuel mobilization (Gerbaudo et al. 2023; Zhang et al. 2019). Similarly, studying the manifestation of anger expressed with a religious narrative, which often refers to moral and ethical norms derived from religious beliefs, will offer insight into the interface between faith and social justice (Master 2009; Rodgers 2010). This would also help to understand why certain messages resonate strongly within the community and also shed light on how religion is used to reinforce and amplify angry messages (Shearer 2021).

In this regard, it appears (Figure 7) that the manifestation of anger is fundamentally associated with a semantic field imbued with expressions of a religious nature (prayers, implorations, invocations, etc.).

Thus, through the long tail of conversation, this association is often articulated as a response to frustration (اللهم إنا نشكو إليك ضعف قوتنا و قلة حيلتنا—O God, we complain to you of our weakness and powerlessness) and a means of channeling and legitimizing anger within a moral and sacralized framework (اللهم هون... لم يبق إلا أنت السميع المجيب—O God... You are the only one left). This interplay between anger and religion also finds its reason to exist as a psychological support mechanism (انصرهم نصرا تشفي به صدور قوم مؤمنين—Give them a victory that will heal the breasts of believers) and a way of providing a plausible interpretation to life’s events (اللهم إن الأمر أمرك—God, it’s your call).

This association could be attributed to a number of psychological, social, and cultural factors. Psychologically, anger is an intense emotion that often seeks catharsis. Religious expressions offer a channel for this abreaction by providing a language allowing the articulation of frustrations and the demand for comfort and divine intervention (Márquez-González et al. 2012).

Socially, the use of religious prayers and implorations in response to anger offers a means of expressing intense emotions in a socially acceptable way. This practice can unite members of a community around shared values and beliefs, creating a sense of solidarity and belonging and thus serving to strengthen community resilience (Garcia and Rimé 2019; Leap and Thompson 2018).

Culturally, religion is often integrated into people’s narratives, providing an interpretive framework for understanding and responding to life events. Religious traditions and texts contain figures that allow anger to be expressed in a legitimized and sacred context (Brown et al. 2010).

In terms of the interactions generated by this mass of angry, religiously formulated messages, two publications stand out for their performance in terms of engagement and potential reach.

1.

The most engaging publication

https://web.facebook.com/MoroccoProtest/posts/pfbid02DNodLjfdsX2sc8avKtDGWFHMheL46KgBypgfDiFHRR5oyWVzPhWrnFCnBAHUUHazl (accessed on 15 May 2024)

2.

Publication with the best potential reach

https://web.facebook.com/MoroccoProtest/posts/pfbid0fU2Ax8B2nxjQAgR1fLDnoRbRq4oy84z2GKa8J7jLWVDCYzHYyYdbgnL89s7X9c89l (accessed on 15 May 2024)

The main themes of these publications are the boycott movement in Morocco against Israeli products and the support for Palestine in reaction to the Israeli aggression against Gaza. The visuals associated with the above-mentioned hyperlinks highlight some of the brands targeted by the boycott movement, such as H&M, McDonald’s, and Starbucks. Users accuse these brands of financially and morally supporting Israel in its war against Palestinians in Gaza.

Reactions to these publications mention that the boycott movement has gained significant momentum in Morocco, with many people joining the cause and calling for a complete boycott of Israeli products. There have also been calls for all Israeli products to be banned from Moroccan markets and for the government to take action against all companies that continue to do business with Israel.

Echoing the real and effective boycott actions, the page’s audience relays information highlighting the effect of these boycotts on McDonald’s sales and reporting the American fast-food chain’s announcement of the decline in its results as a consequence6.

At the same time, the group that owns the Starbucks and H&M franchises in Morocco was forced to publicly dispel reports of an imminent departure of the two brands from Moroccan territory, stating that potential “adjustments” would have no connection with the boycott campaign targeting the two brands7.

In short, these findings clearly show how mobilization on digital social networks, exacerbated by religious narrative, has tangible repercussions on individuals’ real-life interactions. They also illustrate the mobilizing capacity of religious discourse and the extent of its federating power, where individuals, motivated by some sense of religious duty, move from click to action.

This dynamic is particularly visible with events that stir up collective emotions, confirming the ability of religious discourse to transcend digital boundaries and bring about significant transformations in the public sphere.

Consequently, the results presented above enable us to answer our research questions RQ3 and RQ4 and, therefore, to support our hypotheses H3 and H4 and to deduce that Moroccan users’ perceptions of online religious mobilization are nuanced. This mobilization takes the forms of a natural continuation of religious involvement in the public sphere and of a legitimate means of expressing concerns based on shared values. It illustrates, in fine, the complex intersection between the virtual and the real, insofar as it goes beyond the digital space to induce real transformations in the public sphere, strengthening community cohesion, influencing public opinion, and inciting concrete actions of solidarity and protest.

4. Conclusions

An analysis of the dynamics of online protest mobilization in Morocco reveals that the dominant themes are essentially centered on political and social issues. These issues are frequently interpreted through a religious perspective, adding a spiritual dimension to the claims and discourses. This integration of religion into protest discourses not only colors the claims, but it also enriches and strengthens the framework of online protest expression.

Distinctive features of religious mobilization on digital social networks in Morocco include a pronounced use of religious symbols, frequent references to religious beliefs that express faith, and communication that is often imbued with emotion. These elements show how religiosity and spirituality are deeply rooted in people’s daily lives and are used as tools for mobilization and contestation.

By amplifying protest claims, religious discourse plays a central role in social mobilization on digital social networks in Morocco. It provides a moral and ethical framework for collective action, legitimizing claims through religious references. This mobilizes a broad public around shared religious values, reinforcing the sense of belonging to a united community. This framework of legitimacy based on religion is crucial in giving added weight to claims and encouraging collective participation.

Moroccan users’ perceptions of online mobilization with religious content are varied and nuanced. For many users, this form of mobilization is seen as a natural continuation of religious involvement in the public sphere. It is also seen as a legitimate means of expressing societal concerns, based on shared values and beliefs. Online religious mobilization thus demonstrates the complex intersection between the virtual and the real, in the sense that it goes beyond the digital space to induce real transformations in the public sphere.

This intersection enables online religious mobilization to strengthen community cohesion, influence public opinion, and incite concrete actions of solidarity and protest. By providing an ethical framework for collective action, religious discourse helps to structure and orient demands, giving movements a sense of legitimacy and authenticity. It also helps mobilize individuals around moral and ethical principles that are widely respected and accepted, increasing the effectiveness and impact of collective action.

In conclusion, protest mobilization with religious content on digital social networks in Morocco is a multidimensional phenomenon that reflects and shapes the country’s socio-political dynamics. Its study offers enriching insights into the role of religion in the contemporary public sphere and the mechanisms by which the virtual can generate tangible change. This online religious mobilization demonstrates the ability of religious discourse to structure and legitimize protest claims, mobilize a broad audience around shared values, and reinforce a sense of belonging to a community. As a result, it represents a powerful lever for inducing real transformations in the public sphere, thus influencing social and political dynamics in Morocco.