Educational Functions of Biblical Narratives: Insights from an Empirical Research

Abstract

The process of building personal identity can be interpreted in a narrative sense: each person is the author and protagonist of their own story. Educators use multiple narratives, some of which have a suggestive power and will become “structuring” for the narrative construction of the self. Here, we present some results from a research study that explored the knowledge and meaning a sample of young people attributed to biblical stories and some “fantasy” stories, focusing on biblical texts. The analysis of the data reveals a limited knowledge of the Bible, which is often vague and superficial, stemming from readings that took place during childhood. Three possible types of relationships between the process of constructing personal identity and biblical texts emerge. There are people who link reading the Bible to their personal faith life and consider these texts a source of inspiration for their life choices. There are people who had a superficial encounter with the Bible in childhood, and their relationship with the biblical texts is not particularly significant or structuring. Finally, there are people who have had significant engagement with biblical texts but, at some point in life, distanced themselves from faith, still considering those texts as a point of reference.

1. Introduction

Our theoretical framework connects several insights that, from different disciplinary fields, converge on the idea of the educational power of narratives. There is a pedagogical awareness, based on the philosophical considerations of Ricoeur (1984, 1988) and MacIntyre (1984), whereby each person progressively constructs their personal identity that takes the form of a story (narrative identity). This awareness is re-elaborated on the pedagogical level by presenting the entire educational process as a process of supporting the construction of personal identity (Xodo 2019). On the educational level, it is important to nourish this process through some grand narratives that can serve as points of reference. These are structuring narratives with which the growing person engages in constructing their own identity (Carr 2004). We can therefore ask ourselves what some significant narratives might be for the growth journey of young people. A third awareness is that of the narrative structure of the Bible and its potential capacity to always re-emerge (Goheen 2008; Loughlin 1999; Wright 2020), in different ways, as a grand narrative both on the cultural and existential levels. In such a broad and complex scenario, numerous research paths can open.

The contribution focuses on some data from exploratory research, still ongoing, related to the youth imaginary and narratives that imply conferring meaning to the world. The exploration was conducted through a questionnaire administered only digitally to 872 young people enrolled in university or attending the last year of secondary school (aged between 18 and 23 years). The main research question of the questionnaire aimed to verify the knowledge of some figures and narrative themes present in biblical texts and fantasy literature, investigating their significance in the Italian context, characterized by a Catholic cultural tradition. This contribution focuses on biblical narratives, leaving in the background the many interesting issues related to fantasy literature. The research questions of our contribution can be formulated as follows:

• How much knowledge of biblical narratives is there in young people between 18 and 23 years?
• What meaning do such narratives have in their imaginations?
• What is the relationship between knowledge of biblical narratives, their meaning and some major educational issues?

The data from the questionnaire, consisting of responses to multiple-choice questions, were analyzed using a quantitative approach with descriptive statistics (Cohen et al. 2018, p. 753).

The first section of the paper illustrates the theoretical framework based on narrative identity (Ricoeur) and then explores the role that biblical texts can play in the construction of such identity on an educational level. The second section illustrates research design and methodology. This essay is part of a broader research project, which is still in progress, and focuses on some elements related to the educational role of biblical texts. The analysis and discussion of the data will allow us to give a first answer to the research question and open new avenues for further investigation.

Our hypothesis is that both biblical stories and fantasy narratives may have a suggestive power in shaping individuals’ narrative identity, especially during the educational years. It will be necessary to verify whether this happens and under what conditions. In this essay, for reasons that will become clear in the exposition of the theoretical framework, we have considered only biblical texts, seeking to understand how they can play a structuring role in the narrative construction of the Self for both believers and non-believers.

2. The Theoretical Framework: Narrative Education and the Bible as a “Great Narrative”

2.1. Narrative Education

Building on Paul Ricoeur’s reflections (Ricoeur 1984, 1988), we can speak of a narrative identity that takes shape progressively (Verhesschen 2003). It is a journey that each person constructs day by day, with their own peculiarities and specificities: “then we need, not a one-size-fits-all education for autonomy, but, instead, a pedagogy tailored to the peculiar challenges facing particular people in their fight for autonomy and responsibility” (Pickett 2023, p. 66).

According to Ricoeur, the construction of narrative identity develops through several progressive stages, starting with the prefiguration of possible future scenarios, moving through the configuration of present actions, and culminating in a meaningful reinterpretation of the different phases of one’s existence. Every person’s life is like a story, in which everyone is both the author and the protagonist at the same time:

Ricoeur notes that the subject comes to self-knowledge through the construction of a ‘coherent and acceptable story’ about himself (…). Ricoeur’s argument is that narrative identity can account for change within the general configuration of a life (…) and the subject can be both the writer and reader of his own life. (…) If narrative identity is inherently unstable then autobiography provides the exemplary articulation of that instability.

(Crowley 2003, pp. 3–4)

Education aims at the formation of the whole person, and its ultimate goal is autonomy as a person, which entails the ability to act responsibly with freedom. In terms of narrative identity, the task is to become the principal author of the biographical narrative in which one is the protagonist. This is natural, as in the beginning (when we are children), it is parents and educators who write many important pages of our lives.

As a result, we need “an education for narrative coherence, an education leading to a narrative identity”, Ricoeur says. With it, we can construct a complex but comprehensible character, one that is neither “immutable” nor “incoherent”. In other words, we can construct a complex ipse-identity (from the Latin for “self”), in lieu of an unchanging idem-identity (from the Latin for “same”). Such an education can and should, once again, be cultivated on all sides: in both “judge” and “judged”. We may have to do more than acknowledge another’s complexity and narrative identity; we may have to complete, even co-create one another’s stories (Pickett 2023, p. 68).

The growth of awareness of one’s own narrative identity and becoming the author of what Ricoeur calls Ipse-identity entails the development of a life project. In other words, it means becoming—day by day—“Captains of oneself” (Xodo 2019), or, as expressed in English, “to be able to paddle your own canoe” (Baden-Powell [1922] 2017).

Becoming aware and responsible for one’s life choices is a sign of achieved maturity, which is generally associated with adulthood and the successful outcome of the educational journey. This very educational journey can be described and guided through symbolic narratives that serve as genuine pedagogical archetypes (Moscato 1998). The narrative identity that each person develops is thus connected to a symbolic horizon that provides essential reference points for moral choices: “if narrative identity relates the self to itself (its different aspects), and if personal identity relates the self to others (its would-be dominators), then moral identity relates the self to a symbolic moral order (its norms and duties)” (Pickett 2023, p. 72). Each person’s educational journey consists of the progressive and continuous construction of that narrative identity (Xodo 2019) described by Ricoeur. This process reaches an important milestone when an individual’s existential references take on a sufficiently stable form, allowing the person—now an adult—to make their own choices freely and responsibly (Moscato 1998).

The symbolic narratives that nourish our moral order can be philosophical or religious in nature. “To develop a life-story that can situate itself in relation to obligations and the many competing claims on us, we need the sustained study, and the conceptual symbols, of moral philosophy” (Pickett 2023, p. 72).

However, these narratives should not be perceived as something external to people’s lives; they can only play a structuring role in education if they are internalized. When they become part of an individual’s personal narrative, moral and religious narratives contribute to shaping the storyline of a person’s life journey. We need to improve our skills to be both the authors of and the actors in our life stories.

Where, though, can we learn this art? Many, of course, learn the art of narration from narratives—from reading. But we also, and more intentionally, cultivate narrative capability from writing, and analyzing others’ writings. The examination of fictional narratives seems especially helpful. After all, if we can create intelligible selves out of nothing—out of mere squiggle marks on a page—then, perhaps we can learn to turn our own actual lives into similar selves, whether through the study of English, Arabic, Classics, or creative writing. We might, in fact, learn it from any discipline dedicated to the art of “emplotment”: history, biblical studies, ethnography, etc., (Pickett 2023, pp. 70–71).

The construction of each person’s personality is thus found at the intersection of multiple narrative threads (McLean et al. 2007): the self-narrative that everyone progressively develops, the symbolic or meaningful narratives that one internalizes, and the narratives of others, insofar as they raise important questions or influence our self-image.

2.2. The Bible as “Great Narrative” and Fantasy Narratives

Studies on the structure and exegesis of biblical texts have a tradition spanning at least 20 centuries, with many perspectives having been expressed over time. In the last two decades, the narrative approach has become increasingly established, which Loughlin (1999) proposes as a way to engage with the uncertainties of postmodernity. Methodologically speaking, the narrative approach aims to go beyond all methods that focus solely on small fragments.

We have fragmented the Bible into bits—moral bits, systematic-theological bits, devotional bits, historical-critical bits, narrative bits, and homiletical bits. When the Bible is broken up in this way, there is no comprehensive grand narrative to withstand the power of the comprehensive humanist narrative that shapes our culture. The Bible bits are accommodated to the more all-embracing cultural story, and it becomes that story—the humanist story—that shapes our lives (Goheen 2008, p. 472).

A fragmented Bible runs the risk of being misinterpreted and read through the lens of other cultural narratives, as Goheen emphasizes: “if the story of the Bible is fragmented into bits, it can easily be domesticated by the reigning story of culture” (p. 479). Along the same lines, Wright (2020) suggests viewing mission as a hermeneutical framework that can unify the reading of the biblical text as a meaningful story.

The New Testament, in particular, is the narrative of Jesus’ mission, which establishes the missionary nature of the Christian faith. Wright proposes reading the entire Bible as a product of God’s mission. Thus, the Bible can be understood as a grand story—one that should have the power to reshape the world’s other narratives as well as the personal stories of those who read it. Engaging with the biblical text should have an impact on life choices, provided that its message is embraced or at least authentically engaged with.

There is also another possibility: that individuals meet biblical narratives, especially during their formative years, if they receive a Christian education. Such contact entails a certain degree of involvement because, as Carr (2004, p. 52) points out, “given that the intellectual and spiritual import of religious narratives and myths is no less esthetic and affective than cognitive, it seems difficult to see how pupils might have full access to such meaning in the absence of practical and emotional exposure to such symbolic resources”. This involvement may diminish over the course of a person’s life, as they might distance themselves from a life of faith. However, they would still have absorbed certain elements—not only on a cognitive level or in terms of moral choices. It can be assumed that encountering religious narratives leaves a lasting imprint even on those who move away from Christian religious practice, retaining some aspects in the form of internalized narrative structures that may eventually become “secularized” (Moscato 2022).

It is also possible that, today, an increasing number of people do not find their encounter with biblical texts to be a significant factor in shaping their biographical narrative. Cultural substitutes for the grand symbolic narratives of biblical texts can be found in the Fantasy literary genre, particularly in works with spiritual or religious themes. Some works, such as The Chronicles of Narnia or The Lord of the Rings (Williams 2018), explicitly incorporate biblical imagery and are inspired by the Christian faith. In The Chronicles of Narnia, biblical themes are particularly powerful and play a structuring role in the development of the story (Myers 2002). There are also interesting examples of the educational use of The Chronicles of Narnia, such as the Narnian Virtues education project at the University of Leeds (https://narnianvirtues.leeds.ac.uk/, accessed on 1 March 2025), as well as various approaches to theologizing with children (Hanesová et al. 2019).

Other works draw inspiration from alternative forms of spirituality, such as the Star Wars saga, which evokes pantheistic themes inspired by Eastern religious traditions, or the Harry Potter novels, which explore a magical imaginary world (Mamary 2021). In some cases, these fictional narratives become sources of inspiration for actual beliefs and practices, leading to forms of spirituality that serve as alternatives to traditional religions.

In some cases, popular fiction not only inspires belief but also prompts readers and viewers to engage in religious practices that incorporate the story-world into their own lives. For example, members of Jediism, a new religious movement based on George Lucas’ Star Wars saga, aim to live spiritual and ethical lives according to the Jedi Code and perform rituals (mainly meditation, but sometimes also prayer) to communicate with the Force (Davidsen 2016, p. 490).

Jediism is just one example of a fiction-based religion that can potentially be linked to many of the most popular Fantasy narratives.

Beyond some superficial similarities between biblical narratives and fantasy fiction, there are significant and profound differences (Feldt 2016). Fantasy fiction is explicitly a product of the creative imagination of its authors, who may draw inspiration from other narratives (including biblical ones) but are fully aware that they are constructing a wholly fictional world. Biblical narratives, on the other hand, are situated within the context of a real relationship with a God who reveals Himself. While certain biblical texts should not be interpreted literally (as some fundamentalist groups do), neither can they be read merely as works of fiction. The Bible requires a symbolic and allegorical interpretation (Cope 2022), a perspective already understood by the Church Fathers. For this reason, we can hypothesize that there is no full equivalence between the structuring power of biblical texts in shaping personal identity and that of fantasy narratives. Biblical texts, in some way, call the believer to align their life with their teachings. Fantasy fiction, by contrast, can provide inspiration for constructing a symbolic imaginary that individuals can freely reinterpret for their own purposes.

3. Research Design and Methodology

3.1. The Research Question

This contribution focuses on selected data from an exploratory study (Caputo and Rompianesi 2024), in which the author also participated, aimed at investigating how certain narratives (both biblical and fantasy) can shape the youth imagination. The working hypothesis was developed by a research group based on a reflection on the results of a previous study conducted several years ago (Moscato et al. 2017). That study explored the religious beliefs of a sample of over 2000 Catholic adults, examining their theological awareness, relationship with biblical texts, engagement with liturgy, and sense of belonging to the ecclesial community. Particularly noteworthy in that research were the findings related to knowledge of biblical texts and the ways in which the participants interpreted them (Gabbiadini 2017).

The design of this new study expands the scope of the previous one by selecting an opportunistic sample that was not religiously oriented. For this reason, it was not possible to assume that all respondents would have a solid knowledge of biblical texts, leading to the decision to also include fantasy literature in the analysis.

This choice is based on considerations already partially outlined above (Mamary 2021), while also considering the profound differences between biblical texts and fantasy literature (Feldt 2016). Our hypothesis is that there may be analogies between the evocative power of certain fantasy narratives and that of biblical stories, particularly for individuals who either lack sufficient knowledge of biblical narratives or do not consider them significant for their personal life project. In this contribution, due to space constraints and to develop a more in-depth exploration of a single research path, we will focus exclusively on the analysis of responses related to biblical texts. The research question this paper aims to answer can thus be formulated as follows: what is the level of knowledge of biblical texts among young people aged 18 to 23, and what role do these narratives play in their imagination? Underpinning this question are broader educational issues, which will be examined throughout the study.

Our research falls within the framework of a mixed methods design, which—at this stage of ongoing research project—translates into the analysis of questionnaire data that combines multiple-choice closed questions with a few open-ended questions.

The open-ended questions allow researchers to gain additional interpretative insights that can also guide the analysis of responses to closed questions, following an iterative approach (Kimmons 2022). In the future, focus groups are planned with university and high school students to further explore the findings.

3.2. Methodology of the Research

The research developed in an initial phase through the administration of a questionnaire to a sample of 872 young people aged 18 to 23. This is a convenience sample primarily composed of students in their final year of high school and first-year university students, mainly residing in three regions (Veneto, Lombardy, and Emilia-Romagna), where the four research units are based (University of Bologna, University of Padua, University of Verona, and the Catholic University of Milan), along with a group of students from the Province of Syracuse (Sicily).

The questionnaire was administered online using Microsoft Forms, with the link provided during class hours in both high schools and universities, accompanied by a brief explanation of the research objectives and purpose.

The questionnaire consists of 37 multiple-choice closed questions and ten open-ended questions. It is divided into three sections:

1. First section (items 1–15): explores respondents’ perceived level of knowledge of selected narrative cycles and biblical stories;

2. Second section (items 16–37): presents seven narrative excerpts—four from fantasy literature and three from biblical stories.

The questions related to each passage aim to investigate the respondents’ familiarity with and interpretative approach to these narratives. The final question (item 37): invites participants to write down a story or a character that they considered important for their life (“Would you like to tell us about a character and/or story that you consider as important in shaping your representation of life? Could you explain why?”). The third section (items 38–47) collects socio-demographic information, including data relevant to our research. This includes, for example, religious education, the frequency of Catholic religious instruction in school, and the respondents’ perceived or declared religious identity.

The questionnaire data, consisting of multiple-choice responses, were analyzed using a quantitative approach with descriptive statistics (Cohen et al. 2018, p. 753). The open-ended questions received brief responses, which were examined through descriptive analysis. Both the questions related to biblical stories and those concerning fantasy narratives explicitly ask respondents to indicate their degree of familiarity with the stories and the sources of their knowledge. For fantasy stories (The Lord of the Rings, The Chronicles of Narnia, Harry Potter, and Star Wars), the analysis distinguishes between knowledge acquired through films or TV series and knowledge gained from reading books. For biblical stories, the distinction is made between direct, personal reading of the Bible and indirect sources, such as scripture readings during liturgical services, stories encountered at school (Porcarelli 2022), catechism lessons, comics, or family narratives.

It is expected that familiarity with biblical tradition is strongly linked to the liturgical selection of biblical texts, narratives presented in catechesis, and exposure to Catholic religious instruction in school.

3.3. The Sample

Our sample consists of 872 participants (62.2% female, 37.8% male), with an educational background and age corresponding to the context in which the questionnaires were administered (final year of high school, first year of university). Regarding educational background (

Table 1. Types of secondary education attended by respondents.

Secondary School Type	Female		Male		Tot.
	N	%	N	%	N	%
Lyceum	476	54.6%	261	29.9%	737	84.5%
Technical	34	3.9%	46	5.3%	80	9.2%
Vocational	32	3.7%	23	2.6%	55	6.3%
Tot.	542	62.2%	330	37.8%	872	100%

), most of the sample (84.5%) attended high school (liceo) (Caputo and Rompianesi 2024, p. 4).

In terms of religious orientation, it is interesting to note that, while 82.5% of respondents report having received a Catholic religious education, only 24.5% identify as religious. In

Table 2. Self-defined religious identity.

Do You Consider Yourself	Female		Male		Tot.
	N	%	N	%	N	%
Religious	145	16.6%	69	7.9%	214	24.5%
Indifferent or agnostic	146	16.7%	98	11.2%	244	28.0%
Curious	94	10.8%	98	11.2%	192	22.0%
Atheist	103	11.8%	74	8.5%	177	20.3%
Religiously undecided	113	13.0%	50	5.7%	163	18.7%
Still searching	70	8.0%	38	4.4%	108	12.4%
Other	32	3.7%	30	3.4%	62	7.1%
Tot.	703	80.6%	457	52.3%	1160	133.0%

, we present the ways in which respondents to the questionnaire self-define their religious identity. Each respondent had the possibility to select up to two answers, so the total number of responses is higher than the number of individuals in the sample.

While it is true that most of the interviewees reported an initial Catholic religious upbringing, it is equally true that our sample shows a certain variety in terms of the degree to which individuals perceive their sense of belonging to a religious community, with a clear prevalence of agnostics and the uncertain. The number of those who declare themselves as ‘in search’ is less significant, a category that was probably more represented in past years.

Beyond religious education and current sense of belonging, it is worth noting that 78.1% of respondents state that they attended the Teaching of the Catholic Religion (TCR) at school until the end of high school (Porcarelli 2022). This percentage rises to 86.0% when including those (7.9%) who discontinued TCR during secondary education. In the following table,

Table 3. Teaching of the Catholic Religion (TCR) attendance.

TCR Attendance	Female		Male		Tot.
	N	%	N	%	N	%
Never	25	2.9%	8	0.9%	33	3.8%
Only until the end of primary school	22	2.5%	7	0.8%	29	3.3%
Only until the end of lower secondary school	38	4.4%	22	2.5%	60	6.9%
During upper secondary school	37	4.2%	32	3.7%	69	7.9%
Until the end of upper secondary school	420	48.2%	261	29.9%	681	78.1%
Tot.	542	62.2%	330	37.8%	872	100%

, we present the analytical data (Caputo and Rompianesi 2024, p. 4) regarding the attendance of Teaching of the Catholic Religion taught by the subjects in our sample.

It clearly emerges that most of our sample attended this instruction until the end of upper secondary school, while only a small minority never attended it or dropped out after the early school levels. These data could explain a certain familiarity with some biblical texts even among those who have not received a Christian religious education.

The quantitative data analysis benefits from the work of two scholars, published in this same Special Issue (Caputo and Rompianesi 2024). Meanwhile, this paper focuses on certain aspects, including qualitative elements, related to the construction of identity in relation to narratives.

4. Data Analysis

4.1. The Knowledge of the Bible and Its Sources

One of the questionnaire items (Item 7: “Do you know any Bible story?”) was designed to assess respondents’ self-perceived familiarity with Bible stories. The question provided seven possible responses, as well as an open-ended option, “Other”. Respondents were allowed to select up to two options. The collected and analyzed data (Caputo and Rompianesi 2024, p. 5) reveal that 9.9% of the sample do not recall any Bible stories. The remaining respondents claim to know them and indicate the sources from which they have acquired this knowledge (multiple answers were possible), as can be seen in

Table 4. Respondents’ self-assessed familiarity of Bible stories. Percentages represent the ratio of occurrences (N) to the total number of respondents N = 872 (%(T)), females N = 542 (%(tF)), and males N = 330 (%(tM)).

Familiarity with Bible Stories	Female			Male			Tot.
	N	% (T)	% (Tf)	N	% (T)	% (tM)	N	% (T)
No. None, as far as I remember	49	5.6	9.0	37	4.2	11.2	86	0.9
The ones I heard during mass	272	31.2	50.2	140	16.1	42.2	412	47.2
The ones I heard at school	135	15.5	24.9	79	9.1	23.9	214	24.5
The ones I heard at catechism classes	300	34.4	55.4	160	18.3	48.5	460	52.8
The ones I read in comic books	5	0.6	0.9	8	0.9	2.4	13	1.5
Some stories that were told me by my family	69	7.9	12.7	30	3.4	9.1	99	11.4
I know enough of them, and I have read them myself	69	7.9	12.7	58	6.7	17.6	127	14.6
Other	13	1.5	2.4	19	2.2	5.8	32	3.7

.

The respondents primarily heard Bible stories during catechism classes (52.8%) and at mass (47.2%). Only 24.5% heard Bible stories at school. Only 14.6% of respondents report had direct knowledge of Bible stories through personal reading and even fewer (11.4%) mentioned their family environment as a source. In other words, young people in our sample perceive themselves as familiar with certain Bible stories (the question did not require them to self-assess the depth or breadth of their knowledge). However, this familiarity is primarily based on indirect knowledge acquired during childhood catechism classes or attendance at mass, the latter being a practice that appears to have been progressively abandoned by most of the sample, of whom only 24% currently identify as religious.

It is noteworthy that only 24.5% of respondents consider their encounter with Bible narratives at school to be significant. This is particularly striking for two reasons: (1) The vast majority of respondents reported having attended Catholic religious education. (2) It is reasonable to assume that some Bible narratives are also introduced in other subjects, such as literature or art. This suggests that biblical themes are likely addressed indirectly in school settings, but that direct reading of biblical texts is not always given dedicated time and attention. This assumption is further supported by the low percentage of respondents who claim to have personally read the Bible, indicating that direct engagement with the texts remains limited.

Regarding the three biblical narratives presented in the questionnaire (Abraham, Jacob, Ruth), respondents report varying degrees of familiarity with them. See

Table 5. Respondents’ self-assessed knowledge of the Bible stories of Abraham, Jacob, and Ruth. Percentages represent the ratio of occurrences (N) to the total number of respondents N = 872 (%(T)), females N = 542 (%(tF)), and males N = 330 (%(tM)).

Knowledge of the Bible Stories		Female			Male			Tot.
		N	% (T)	% (Tf)	N	% (T)	% (tM)	N	% (T)
Yes	Abraham	293	33.6	54.1	190	21.8	57.6	483	55.4
	Jacob	134	15.4	24.7	86	9.9	26.1	220	25.2
	Ruth	33	3.8	6.1	22	2.5	6.7	55	6.3
No	Abraham	76	8.7	14.0	51	5.8	15.5	127	14.6
	Jacob	248	28.4	45.8	151	17.3	45.8	399	45.8
	Ruth	468	53.7	86.3	281	32.2	85.2	749	85.9
Perhaps. but I remember it partially	Abraham	173	19.8	31.9	89	10.2	27.0	262	30.0
	Jacob	160	18.3	29.5	93	10.7	28.2	253	29.0
	Ruth	41	4.7	7.6	27	3.1	8.2	68	7.8

(Caputo and Rompianesi 2024, p. 7).

The story of Abraham is the most well-known Bible story within the sample, with 55.4% of respondents stating that they were already familiar with it and 30.0% recalling it partially. However, 14.6% of the sample reported not knowing the story of Abraham after reading the excerpt, which represents a minority in absolute terms but is a significant percentage, slightly above the 9.9% who declare having no familiarity with biblical stories. The story of Jacob was less familiar, as only 25.5% of the sample selected the option “Yes”, while 29.0% indicated “Perhaps, but I remember it partially”, and 45.8% stated they did not know the story at all. Lastly, the story of Ruth was known to only 6.3% of the sample, with 7.8% recalling it partially, and 85.9% being unfamiliar with it altogether. There were no significant differences between the male and female subgroups, both of which followed the trends described above.

It should be noted that, during the questionnaire design process, the research group deliberately selected three biblical passages that were expected to have varying levels of presence in contemporary youth culture. The questionnaire responses confirmed this initial assumption. Additionally, there is a significant difference between asking respondents whether they remember any Bible stories in general (without specifying which ones) and inquiring about their specific knowledge of certain narratives. Furthermore, it can be assumed that the stories of Jacob and Ruth are less frequently encountered in liturgical settings compared to the call of Abraham, which is likely more prominent in catechism and religious education at school.

A further confirmation of the type of biblical knowledge possessed by our sample of young people emerges from the responses to the open-ended question asking them to indicate whether there is a Bible episode that has particularly struck them. In this case, we did not provide any biblical passages or suggest specific episodes; instead, respondents had to search their own memories (however vague) for texts they considered significant. Out of 872 respondents: 96 left the response blank, 239 wrote “no” or provided a similar explanation indicating that they were unable to name a personally significant biblical passage. This results in a total non-response rate of 38.4%, significantly higher than the 9.9% who had previously stated they did not know any Bible stories at all. However, this discrepancy is understandable: the open-ended question was more demanding, requiring respondents to not only recall a biblical episode but also to identify it as personally significant. As we will see, some responses demonstrate only an approximate knowledge of the texts, but they still reflect some level of engagement with the material as a personal reference point.

It could be interesting to administer the same questionnaire to a sample of people with Jewish or Evangelical Christian backgrounds, to verify if the number of those who declare to have personally read the biblical texts would be higher, as well as the knowledge of these three specific episodes from the Old Testament.

4.2. Themes from Biblical Narratives

Some of the questionnaire items explicitly explored the narrative themes that respondents identified in the biblical texts we presented to them. The analysis revealed several interesting and significant findings, shedding light on how young people interpret these stories and the key themes they perceive within them. The sample identified “The test” (53.4%) and “The call/Vocation” (50.0%) as the most relevant narrative themes related to the story of Abraham, followed by “Faithfulness” (41.4%), “Courage” (36.5%), and “The overcoming of the test”, which was selected by almost one-fifth of the respondents (18.8%). For the story of Jacob, 40.0% of respondents indicated “The overcoming of the test” as the most relevant theme, followed by “The test” (34.4%) and “Courage” (30.2%). Lastly, “Faithfulness” (52.2%) and “Loving solidarity” (52.1%) were the most frequently chosen themes for the story of Ruth, with “Courage” being the third most selected, though less popular, option (20.9%)” (Caputo and Rompianesi 2024, p. 7).

The analysis reveals a reading of the texts that primarily emphasizes faith and religious experience as a heroic act, something that individuals undertake through their own strength and that requires great courage. Only in the passage about Ruth (which was by far the least well-known) do other important aspects of the Christian religious experience emerge more clearly, such as trust in God and loving solidarity—themes that many respondents may more readily associate with the New Testament rather than the Old Testament narratives.

Using thematic analysis (Clarke and Braun 2016), we conducted an immersive reading of the responses to the open-ended question about Bible stories, which was formulated as follows: “if there is a particular Bible story that you liked, could you name it and explain why?”. A key finding—beyond the variety of stories mentioned—is that each respondent identifies their chosen story using their own words, which do not always match the terminology used by others. Nevertheless, we were able to categorize several distinct groups of commonly recurring responses, despite the 38.4% of respondents who did not recall any particularly significant Bible episode. Additionally, 21 respondents explicitly articulated the relevance and significance of Bible stories in general, without mentioning any specific narrative.

Among the Old Testament episodes mentioned, the most frequently cited are: the story of Moses and the parting of the Red Sea (51 respondents), the sacrifice of Isaac (34 responses), Noah’s Ark (26 responses), the story of Adam and Eve, from creation to sin (22 responses), the story of Joseph (20 responses), with some referring to him as “the king of dreams”, Sodom and Gomorrah (12 responses), Cain and Abel (12 responses), The calling of Abraham (10 responses), The Tower of Babel (9 responses), David and Goliath (8 responses), the figure of Job (6 responses), Jonah in the whale (5 responses), with one respondent explicitly drawing a parallel to Pinocchio. Additionally, many other Old Testament episodes were cited, including Daniel in the lion’s den, Tobiah and Sarah, King Solomon’s judgment (4 responses), Naaman the Syrian, the anointing of David, Naomi and Ruth, and Judith killing Holofernes. In total, 36 Old Testament episodes were mentioned, accumulating 258 responses overall. The most cited episodes from the New Testament are: the Prodigal Son (48 responses), the Good Samaritan (27 responses), the multiplication of loaves and fishes (24 responses), the lost sheep (11 responses), the healing of the blind man (10 responses), the Book of Revelation (9 responses), Jesus and the adulteress (8 responses), the Parable of the Talents (8 responses), and the crucifixion of Jesus (8 responses). Many other episodes are cited (with a total of 48), ranging from the conversion of St. Paul to the figure of Judas (cited by 7 respondents), to the disciples of Emmaus and Peter’s denial, which receive—in total—238 responses, plus one that indicates St. Francis as a biblical character.

4.3. Personal Meanings Behind the Biblical Narratives

Some responses are very brief, simply mentioning the episode’s title of the Bible, while others provide a short summary of the story or explicitly explain why they find it meaningful (as requested by the question addressed in the previous section). In some cases, the reasons appear to be more emotional, such as respondents citing Noah’s Ark due to their love for animals or one individual mentioning the healing of the epileptic while stating that they suffer from epilepsy. Other responses are more elaborate, offering multiple types of reasoning. These can be broadly categorized into three main groups:

• Theological/Spiritual Motivations: Respondents highlight religious or faith-related significance in the narratives;
• Motivations Linked to a Distant Encounter with Biblical Texts: These responses suggest a connection to childhood experiences, catechism, or school teachings;
• Critical or Polemical Motivations: Some respondents express skepticism, critique biblical stories, or question their relevance.

There are individuals who demonstrate a deep religious sensitivity and select a biblical episode for spiritual or even theological reasons. For example, one respondent who mentioned the Good Samaritan provided the following reasoning:

The parable of the Good Samaritan moves me because, unlike the other passersby, he does not ignore the assaulted person who needs care and support. Pope Francis recently commented on this story, highlighting the difference between ‘seeing’ reality and ‘looking at’ reality. All the other passersby only saw the man in need—they did not truly look at him, did not take that moment to meet his eyes and understand his suffering. The parable of the Good Samaritan is perhaps the one that most concretely shows us the way to combat indifference.

(n. 277)

In this case, the respondent does not merely offer a theological reading of the Parable of the Good Samaritan but also implicitly references Pope Francis’ commentary on it in Fratelli tutti (nn. 63–65). This suggests a solid ecclesial culture, enriched by readings of the Church’s magisterium. A similar depth of reflection emerges in another response, which cites the episode of the disciples on the road to Emmaus. The respondent notes that this story has been the subject of numerous artistic representations but, more importantly, highlights its spiritual significance: an encounter with the Risen Christ that restores hope to disoriented disciples and is revealed in the breaking of the bread. The reflection concludes with an exhortation to Christians, framed in the first-person plural: “Too often we Christians forget that ours is the religion of the Cross but also of the Resurrection—not a suffering that ends in itself, but one that points the way to hope” (n. 309).

In several responses, the memory of childhood readings of biblical episodes emerges—likely encountered during catechism years or through Mass readings. These memories, though not recent, have left a mark based on what could capture a child’s imagination. Many Old Testament stories are recalled in this way. For example, this is evident in the various responses mentioning the story of Adam and Eve, as well as in those who recall Noah’s Ark with an emphasis on the salvation of the animals. A similar dynamic appears in references to the figure of Joseph, described as the “King of Dreams”. This phrase directly cites the animated film Joseph: King of Dreams, released in 2000 in the United States and widely circulated in Italy. It is reasonable to assume that this movie was used in catechism meetings or religion classes, shaping young people’s familiarity with the biblical narrative.

Given that most of those who perceive themselves as distant from the experience of faith likely did not answer this question, there are some responses that reveal a remote religious upbringing, which has been reinterpreted over time in critical or polemical terms. One response cites the episode of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, “because it shows the hypocrisy of religion” (n. 128), without further clarification. However, it can be inferred that the respondent feels discomfort with the fact that this biblical episode is often used to justify moral condemnation of homosexuality. Another response, from a person who identifies as an atheist, offers a critical analysis of the Book of Job, recognizing the inadequacy of the simplistic explanations given by Job’s friends but stating that they do not appreciate the overall meaning of the text:

The Old Testament feels somewhat hostile to me, but (…) I find the story of Job interesting because, as an atheist, I do not understand it. (…) I do not like how this story ends, or perhaps my lack of belief has led me to misinterpret it: after all the suffering a man endures, can God’s response really be reduced to “you have sinned a little out of pride because you thought you could interpret my actions better than I”? Honestly, the idea of a good and merciful God begins to fade long before the question of theodicy….

(n. 448)

The lengthy response, from which we have quoted an excerpt, reveals a structured religious background, with significant and thoughtful biblical readings. However, these readings are now being reinterpreted and reworked considering the respondent’s new spiritual and religious identity. In this case, the respondent explicitly identifies as an atheist and likely feels the need to articulate, first and foremost to herself, the “good reasons” for having distanced herself from a religious experience that she had probably embraced with conviction at an earlier stage of her life.

One final insight can be indirectly drawn from the analysis of responses to the thirty-seventh question (the last open-ended question), which asks: “Would you like to share a character and/or a story that you consider important in shaping your understanding of life? Could you explain why?”. Most respondents (459 people) either skipped the question or stated that they did not have any character they viewed as a source of inspiration. Additionally, 382 people mentioned non-biblical figures, including protagonists from the Harry Potter saga, parents or other significant individuals, characters from TV series, or video games. Only 21 respondents referred to characters from biblical stories, and among them, the most frequently mentioned (with a total of six responses) was Jesus, cited either as a model for life or as the savior of humanity. Other biblical figures previously encountered in the study also appeared in responses, including Abraham, Moses, Job, the Prodigal Son, and Mary.

5. Data Discussion

A growing person constructs their own existential narrative (Moscato 1998; Pickett 2023), drawing from other narratives encountered in their living environment. Our initial hypothesis aimed to verify whether certain biblical or fantasy narratives could be considered “structuring” in the identity formation of young people.

This hypothesis was only partially confirmed and applies to a relatively small percentage of our sample. Our findings align with other studies on significant texts, including literary works (Koopman and Hakemulder 2015), which suggest that such texts can provide valuable opportunities for self-reflection and personal decision-making. However, our data indicates that this does not necessarily happen spontaneously—except for those who already consider these texts meaningful for personal reasons. The ways in which some Christian respondents refer to biblical passages they find significant suggest that these texts genuinely serve as sources of inspiration in shaping their personal identity. The previously cited response referencing the Parable of the Good Samaritan (n. 277) is a clear example of a religious reading of the biblical text, seen as a source of spiritual nourishment and guidance.

It is interesting to note that another respondent mentioned the same passage as significant, referring to a time in the past when they were “closer to the Catholic faith”:

One of the stories that struck me the most and remained most impressed in my mind, during my time of closeness to the Catholic faith, is that of the “Good Samaritan”. The story speaks of mutual help that can exist even between people who are different or even enemies, and it was often told or cited as a reference during friendship education moments I experienced within the Scouts. I have always found this parable very simple, free from supernatural events or incomprehensible facts related to the divine (in which I still do not believe), yet extremely meaningful and powerful in its message.

(n. 301)

This statement suggests a biblical text that was once read through the eyes of a believer at a certain stage in life, remaining important for its human significance even after biographical changes led this person to distance themselves from faith. However, they have not distanced themselves from the teachings related to friendship, solidarity, and care for others. One can almost tangibly perceive in this text what Moscato (2022) asserts when discussing the survival of the effects of religious formation, even in a secularized form.

It is important to consider that the ways in which biographical trajectories develop concerning religious affiliation, especially during adolescence, can vary significantly (Schnitker et al. 2021). In some cases, religious disaffiliation occurs without trauma, while in others, the distancing process can be more traumatic. In the first case, there may be a vague memory of a meaningful encounter with religious narratives during childhood, which is retained as a positive recollection:

I liked the story of Adam and Eve and the creation of the world by God in seven days because, as a child, I read the story in the Bible on my own, and in elementary school, during religion class, we watched engaging films about it.

(n. 273)

In this case, the reference to a childhood reading experience, situated in the elementary school years, is explicitly stated. However, we can interpret similarly the recollections of the Old Testament episode of Noah’s Ark, often closely linked to a love for animals, or certain biblical stories retrieved through cinematic narratives, such as the story of Joseph in “The King of Dreams”, as previously mentioned. A more mature reading of the biblical text, which has extended at least into adolescence, would likely be marked by an awareness of the need to interpret such texts in a more symbolic and allegorical way (Cope 2022). In contrast, a more literal or emotional reading is the legacy of a childhood religious education that was soon abandoned, even without the occurrence of traumatic events.

In other cases, the memory is more recent and may leave a deeper imprint, allowing for the internalization of moral teachings and the recognition of certain behaviors as having human value, even if they are no longer associated with their religious significance. This type of reading has likely led to a higher level of engagement and the ability to interpret biblical narratives in a more mature way, moving beyond a literal or emotional approach (Carr 2004). In general, a more mature reading of biblical texts also involves a contextual understanding that goes beyond the limitations of fragmented readings. As previously noted (Wright 2020), an overly fragmented approach to the Bible, focusing only on certain episodes, risks generating misunderstandings and superficial interpretations. Those who demonstrate a strong understanding of the human values present in biblical texts have likely had the opportunity to engage with them in the context of more structured educational paths.

In other cases, there are more polemical statements, likely linked to a more traumatic departure from religious life that has left inner wounds. Consider, for example, the person who cites the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah because it “reveals all the hypocrisy of religion” (n. 128) or the one who identifies Judas as an alternative hero who “truly reflects human weaknesses in his way of being and (...) always seems the most sincere and real to me” (n. 156). It is probably considering such wounds that we can interpret certain more critical responses, where for instance, the idea of “blind faith” is emphasized in reference to the figure of Abraham. Particularly interesting is the statement of someone who demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of the Book of Job—indicating that their past relationship with the biblical text had been deep—yet now reads it through a critical lens:

Job challenges God, God condemns reason and preaches absolute surrender to faith. I believe this is a powerful representation of what the Catholic Church is and how history has evolved over the years at the expense of reason (just think of Bruno, Spinoza, Galileo, or Descartes).

(n. 288)

This is an understandable representation when considering individuals who were raised with a Christian education in childhood but later abandoned religious formation during adolescence, engaging in “stopping rituals intended to facilitate connection to God, often in the form of ceasing public (e.g., worship service attendance) and private (e.g., prayer and scripture study) religious practices” (Hardy and Taylor 2024, p. 185). This process of progressive religious disaffiliation often begins with doubts related to the moral norms associated with the Christian faith and gradually extends to questioning the very image of God and the religious experience itself.

6. Conclusions and Future Directions

Our journey began with a cultural hypothesis developed within the theoretical framework. Education is an activity that supports human beings in their process of identity formation, which occurs in narrative terms (Ricoeur 1984), which is completed by the construction of one’s personal identity (Xodo 2019) and the attainment of full capacity to act freely and responsibly (Moscato 1998). Educators can use narrative tools, both by creating their own stories and by drawing from the great narratives available in their culture. Biblical narratives can be considered particularly significant instruments for fostering the construction of meaningful perspectives. The real effectiveness of this approach, however, does not simply depend on the fact that children have encountered biblical narratives in some way, but requires that this encounter has been meaningful from an educational perspective. To achieve this result, it is necessary to adopt an appropriate methodology, which is not the subject of this essay but is explored in the contributions of other scholars. Let us cite, for example, a brief passage from a text that proposes a specific methodology for the educational use of biblical texts, based on a narrative philosophy (inspired by Ricoeur) and a narrative theology:

If pupils are to engage with the Bible as more than a source of proof-texts for stereotyped moral dilemmas, the phases of learning set out in this article will need to be realized in resources and reading tools that acknowledge the Bible’s complexity and the way in which it is understood by Christians as a collection of narratives that inform the development of character and virtue.

(Reed et al. 2013, p. 309)

There is also a concurrent hypothesis, not explored in this study, suggesting that certain fantasy narratives might play a similar role, especially for those who have not had the opportunity to engage with biblical texts.

The research presented here is part of a broader study (Caputo and Rompianesi 2024) that examines the relationship a sample of 18- to 20-year-old students has with biblical and fantasy narratives. The findings reveal a complex and multifaceted picture, of which we focus here on certain aspects of biblical narratives, highlighting different possible approaches to biblical texts. These approaches are generally shaped by readings heard during Mass, catechism lessons, or religious education classes at school.

The most significant insight emerging from the data analysis and discussion concerns the depth of personal engagement with biblical texts, which varies depending on the age at which one stopped exploring their meaning. If religious practices were abandoned in early childhood, the understanding of biblical texts often remains at a very basic level. Conversely, if an individual continued reflecting on these texts over time, their comprehension can be more profound. To better understand how biblical narratives have been structuring and meaningful for some individuals, it would be important, as previously mentioned, to also examine the ways in which these narratives were encountered, not just the contexts in which they were encountered. Our questionnaire does not provide precise elements in this regard, but it helps us to infer in which contexts and stages of life the encounter with biblical narratives may have been most significant.

A key factor is whether the person maintained their religious affiliation or, at some point, distanced themselves from faith—either gradually or through a more traumatic break. Some critical but well-informed interpretations of biblical texts suggest that these individuals had a solid Christian formation but later left their faith at a relatively mature age, often through experiences that were not entirely peaceful or without inner conflict.

The research design presents certain limitations, stemming from the decision to focus on a convenience sample selected from four Italian regions, within cultural environments where the predominant religious sensitivity was that of Catholic Christianity. It may be worthwhile to administer the same questionnaire in different contexts, particularly in settings with a significant presence of Christians from Protestant churches, where the practice of directly reading biblical texts is presumed to be more widespread. Additionally, one could consider adapting the questionnaire for use in other cultures, whether similar or more distant. In such cases, it would likely be necessary to forgo the use of biblical texts in favor of symbolic narratives or religious stories that hold greater significance within those cultural contexts.

This is a highly promising research path, particularly because the role of narrative thought in shaping personal identity—both during the educational years and beyond—is full of fascinating insights and lends itself to exploration from a variety of perspectives.