Religions

17 pages, 250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Management of Religious Diversity in Chile: Experiences from Local Governments

by Nelson Marín Alarcón and Luis Bahamondes González

Religions 2025, 16(4), 535; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040535 - 21 Apr 2025

This article analyzes the origins, characteristics, and functioning of the Chilean public institutions dedicated to managing religious diversity at the municipal level. Paying attention to the effects produced by the promulgation of the 1999 Cults Law, the text problematizes how the tensions between [...] Read more.

This article analyzes the origins, characteristics, and functioning of the Chilean public institutions dedicated to managing religious diversity at the municipal level. Paying attention to the effects produced by the promulgation of the 1999 Cults Law, the text problematizes how the tensions between political, technical, and religious elements affect the daily functioning of the Municipal Offices of Religious Affairs (OMARs in Spanish). Here, the influence of evangelical pressure groups seeking to position themselves at the level of local politics meets local governments led by mayors searching to expand their access to forms of organized citizenship. The article is based on a historical review of the forms of religious management in Chile and interviews with those in charge of the OMARs in communes of the city of Santiago. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Management of Religious Diversity: Comparing and Contrasting Experiences across the World)

13 pages, 938 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Returning to Zhen: An Investigation of Zhen Highlighted by Zhuangzi and Daoist Self-Transcendence

by Shaojun Wang

Religions 2025, 16(4), 534; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040534 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

Very few people know that there is not even one character of zhen 真 in the Thirteen Classics revered by Confucians. Among the three axiological categories, Confucianism attaches importance to shan 善 (goodness) and mei 美 (beauty), while Daoism highlights zhen. It [...] Read more.

Very few people know that there is not even one character of zhen 真 in the Thirteen Classics revered by Confucians. Among the three axiological categories, Confucianism attaches importance to shan 善 (goodness) and mei 美 (beauty), while Daoism highlights zhen. It was Daoism that first put forward zhen as a philosophical concept and discussed it extensively. However, the existing research about it is still insufficient and mingled with misunderstandings. In this article, I will explore its innermost connotations. I will mainly employ methods such as a literature analysis and comparative research in this inquiry. Zhen indicates the existential authenticity of each individual and the whole world. Daoists believe that one will deviate from zhen once he/she yields to su 俗. Su not only refers to sensual desires but includes Confucian moral regulations as well. Only when one has transcended these secular values will it be possible for him/her to become a true person (zhenren 真人). What Confucians are concerned with is shan, and they even want to repress zhen with shan. This is the fundamental reason that they are unwilling to mention zhen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Comparative Study of the Concepts of Self-Transcendence, Value and Power in the Works of Emerson and Zhuang Zi)

24 pages, 7866 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How the Body Gets Healthy: An Empirical Case of Animism and Naturalism Working Together in the Treatment of Disease Among the Nuosu People of Southwest China

by Qian Sun, Ximing Xue and Chen Chen

Religions 2025, 16(4), 533; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040533 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

This paper examines perceptions of illness and related therapeutic practices observed among the Nuosu, an ethnic minority group of Southwest China. The paper will discuss the interplay between animism and naturalism in the treatment of Nuosu illness. Through a case study of a [...] Read more.

This paper examines perceptions of illness and related therapeutic practices observed among the Nuosu, an ethnic minority group of Southwest China. The paper will discuss the interplay between animism and naturalism in the treatment of Nuosu illness. Through a case study of a young Nuosu woman’s treatment of illness, the analysis reveals a relationship between animism and naturalism that is both antagonistic and synergistic. At the epistemological level, these two ontologies diverge; however, when confronted with differences in knowledge, the Nuosu worldview and view of illness exhibit a ‘relational’ model of intimate connection between human and non-human entities. The Nuosu did not reject naturalism, but rather ‘made connections’ in a way that led to greater intellectual convergence between animism and naturalism, thus providing a basis for cooperation between the two. On a practical level, modern medicine focuses on physical healing, while the Nuosu’s rituals emphasize the healing of the soul and body to achieve health. The integration of animism and naturalism in the healing process by the Nuosu allowed for cooperation and complementarity between the two in the realm of practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion, Ritual, and Healing)

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14 pages, 256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strategies for Colonizing Death: The Online Dead, Griefbots, and Transhumanist Dragons

by Raquel Ferrández

Religions 2025, 16(4), 532; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040532 - 20 Apr 2025

Abstract

Digital immortality and transhumanist longevity proposals are currently researched and debated independently. This essay claims that both ideas represent two sides of the same cultural denial of death, reconceptualizing them as interconnected forms of thanato-colonialism. The first form includes the digital immortality [...] Read more.

Digital immortality and transhumanist longevity proposals are currently researched and debated independently. This essay claims that both ideas represent two sides of the same cultural denial of death, reconceptualizing them as interconnected forms of thanato-colonialism. The first form includes the digital immortality industry, in both its passive and active versions. Interpreted from the framework of data colonialism, digital immortality represents a masterful maneuver, guaranteeing that the dead can continue to contribute to the extractive logic of this new economy by endlessly generating data and serving as bait for the appropriation of human lives. In this way, data colonialism is no longer constrained by physical disappearance—transforming death itself into a profitable colonization strategy. The second kind of thanato-colonialism surfaces within the transhumanist imaginaries, which inherit the violence of historical colonialism and resort to the argument of progress to justify their ends. Nick Bostrom’s fable of the Dragon Tyrant allegorizes old age as a mythological beast, an archetype of the “other”—fundamentally different, threatening, and impossible to negotiate with—who must be subdued without contemplation. A team of engineers—humanity’s saviors—is tasked with slaying it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Between Philosophy and Theology: Liminal and Contested Issues)

14 pages, 298 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dechurched Christians in Hong Kong: A Study

by Ann Gillian Chu

Religions 2025, 16(4), 531; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040531 - 19 Apr 2025

Viewed by 200

Abstract

Though many Christian churches exist in Hong Kong, some who claim to be Christians are not members of churches, nor do they attend a Sunday service regularly. They identify as faithful but not religious. Some might even be pursuing advanced degrees in Christian [...] Read more.

Though many Christian churches exist in Hong Kong, some who claim to be Christians are not members of churches, nor do they attend a Sunday service regularly. They identify as faithful but not religious. Some might even be pursuing advanced degrees in Christian studies. Why do they not join an institutional church then? Have they experienced trauma in institutional churches, and how do they process such issues? What do they hope for spiritually? Is there something in Christianity that cannot be replaced by secular spirituality which leads them to still claim to be Christians? In this article, I explore the experiences of dechurched Hong Kong Christians through archival and qualitative study, a method that foregrounds the often contradictory, complicated lived experience of faith, and ask questions about their earnestness and commitment to Christianity outside of the institutional church. I aim to understand the theological and religious perspectives of dechurched Christians and question the role of institutional churches in Hong Kong, discussing the following: (1) mundane trauma as a cause for leaving church, (2) the tendency of contemplative believers to leave church, and (3) the fragility of religious identity. I conclude that the institutional church in Hong Kong, as it is now, needs radical reimagination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue ‘On the Lapsed’: Comparative Ethnographic Perspectives on ‘Lapsing’ among Christians around the World)

13 pages, 223 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Sacred in the Mud: On Downward Transcendence in Religious and Spiritual Experience

by Yue Wu

Religions 2025, 16(4), 530; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040530 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 189

Abstract

Although there has been an increasing focus on religious and spiritual experience in literary studies within the context of post-critical and post-secular movements, much of the research is framed around the idea of “upward transcendence” in redemption narratives. This focus tends to overlook [...] Read more.

Although there has been an increasing focus on religious and spiritual experience in literary studies within the context of post-critical and post-secular movements, much of the research is framed around the idea of “upward transcendence” in redemption narratives. This focus tends to overlook the negative aspects of life, such as absurdity, meaninglessness, and existential anxiety. Furthermore, it frequently resonates with capitalist ideals that champion a “seamless existence” while dismissing the unrefined essence of materiality. This article engages in two main tasks: First, it emphasizes the negative dimensions of religious and spiritual experience, drawing on Slavoj Žižek’s interpretation of theological and non-theological literature. Second, it expands the definition and scope of religious and spiritual experience, proposing an alternative paradigm based on absurdity and meaninglessness. This paradigm, “downward transcendence,” rejects the redemptive promise of “ascension” and redefines the sacred by engaging with the disruptive and unsettling fabric of existence, reconstructing the coordinates of the sacred within the fissures of reality. Through the case study of Sartre’s Nausea, the article explores how existential absurdity and meaninglessness can reconfigure the sacred, particularly through marginality and the transformative potential of negative experiences. It ultimately proposes downward transcendence as a radical reimagining of spiritual and existential freedom. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Imagining Ultimacy: Religious and Spiritual Experience in Literature)

15 pages, 7306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ecclesiastical Adaptation and Reformation: The Evolution of Dutch Reformed Urban Church Architecture in Sri Lanka (1658–1796)

by Sagara Jayasinghe

Religions 2025, 16(4), 529; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040529 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 127

Abstract

Sri Lanka, then known as Ceylon, was ruled by three Euro-Christian colonisers for over 450 years. Alongside their pursuit of trade and wealth, these colonial powers—the Portuguese (1505–1658), Dutch (1658–1796), and British (1796–1948)—sought to establish their distinct forms of Christianity: Catholicism by the [...] Read more.

Sri Lanka, then known as Ceylon, was ruled by three Euro-Christian colonisers for over 450 years. Alongside their pursuit of trade and wealth, these colonial powers—the Portuguese (1505–1658), Dutch (1658–1796), and British (1796–1948)—sought to establish their distinct forms of Christianity: Catholicism by the Portuguese, Reformation by the Dutch, and Anglicanism and other Protestant denominations by the British. The missionary strategies and religious policies of these European colonisers varied significantly. Unlike Catholicism, which closely aligned with the external rituals of local religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism, the Dutch Reformed religion emphasised Christian doctrine and biblical scripture, distinguishing itself in its liturgy, art, and architecture. This paper examines the origins and development of Dutch Reformed urban church architecture in Sri Lanka through archival, cartographical, and morphological research, complemented by an architectural survey of the surviving Dutch Reformed churches. The study reveals that the Dutch initially repurposed several Portuguese churches for Reformed worship, and later, they introduced the “Meeting House” typology, aligning with Reformed ecclesiastical and liturgical principles. Over time, this evolved into larger “Greek Cross Plan” churches, a trend that continued until the rise of Anglicanism. Full article

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20 pages, 663 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Pursuit of Legitimacy: The Muslim Brotherhood’s Discourse on Democracy and Human Rights in Post-2013 Egypt

by Bosmat Yefet

Religions 2025, 16(4), 528; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040528 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 174

Abstract

This article examines the Muslim Brotherhood’s strategic framing of democracy and human rights in Egypt following the 2013 military coup, contributing to scholarship on the movement’s adaptation to repression and political exclusion. Employing framing analysis, this study analyzes official statements from Ikhwanonline from [...] Read more.

This article examines the Muslim Brotherhood’s strategic framing of democracy and human rights in Egypt following the 2013 military coup, contributing to scholarship on the movement’s adaptation to repression and political exclusion. Employing framing analysis, this study analyzes official statements from Ikhwanonline from 2015 to 2024, when the old guard regained control over the organization’s messaging, in order to explore how the movement operated to reclaim political legitimacy amid repression, exile, and internal fragmentation. The findings indicate that despite the failure of its strategic commitment to democracy as a pathway to political dominance—culminating in its ousting—the old guard continues to espouse this framework. The movement frames its predicament and struggle as part of the Egyptian people’s broader fight against oppression and authoritarianism. This rhetorical continuity persists despite internal divisions and reformist calls for a more proactive approach, highlighting the movement’s reliance on established discursive strategies not only to confront regime repression but also to avoid engaging with questions of institutional reform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transitions of Islam and Democracy: Thinking Political Theology)

38 pages, 9798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Catalan Sigillography and Beyond: Iconic Behaviors in Medieval Breaking Seals

by Alfons Puigarnau

Religions 2025, 16(4), 527; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040527 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 243

Abstract

The author analyzes various cases of breaking seal matrices in medieval Catalonia and other regions in this text. The manuscript notes of the Catalan sigillographer Ferran de Sagarra guide the exploration of the mechanisms of signification associated with an essential medieval political theology. [...] Read more.

The author analyzes various cases of breaking seal matrices in medieval Catalonia and other regions in this text. The manuscript notes of the Catalan sigillographer Ferran de Sagarra guide the exploration of the mechanisms of signification associated with an essential medieval political theology. Beyond the materiality of the sigillary matrix and the printed seal, one can decipher a series of iconic behaviors that allow the author to propose a method for understanding European cultural history through anachronistic narrative forms akin to those of Aby Warburg, Walter Benjamin, or, more recently, Georges Didi-Huberman. It is possible to demonstrate the historical validity of seals in the service of a cultural history and thought that transcends political or religious narratives, opening new horizons in the understanding of the Latin West from the Carolingian period to the apex of international Gothic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)

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15 pages, 255 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Praying with Animals, Plants, Soil, Land, and Water: The Theology of Creation in Cláudio Carvalhaes’ Liturgical-Political Theology

by Mark S. Medley

Religions 2025, 16(4), 526; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040526 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 388

Abstract

This paper delineates the theology of creation in Brazilian theologian Cláudio Carvalhaes’ eco-liturgical theology of liberation. Reorienting lex orandi-lex credendi-lex vivendi by his liturgical methodological innovation lex naturae, he envisions every dimension of worship as deeply connected to a planet in crisis. [...] Read more.

This paper delineates the theology of creation in Brazilian theologian Cláudio Carvalhaes’ eco-liturgical theology of liberation. Reorienting lex orandi-lex credendi-lex vivendi by his liturgical methodological innovation lex naturae, he envisions every dimension of worship as deeply connected to a planet in crisis. Lex naturae transforms liturgical spaces into creational–political spaces which invoke and evoke people to deeply attend to, to cry with, to wonder with, and to pray and sing with the forests, animals, soil, water, and all earthly beings. Celebrating a creational solidarity and wisdom, lex naturae ritualizes that people are the earth, the earth is in people, and human and more-than-human beings belong to each other. Using the seven petitions of his “The Ecological Lord’s Prayer”, Carvalhaes’ theology of creation, which reimagines the Divine, the earth, and the human in a multispecies context via the (re)orienting ground of lex naturae, is “unearthed.” His theology of creation centers the creaturely commonality with more-than-human neighbors and challenges human beings to live, love, and flourish within all the entanglements of created life. Lex naturae is also a form of asceticism which aims to recalibrate the human focus towards environmental justice for the planet. It aims at changing human desire to turn away from the brutalism of colonialism’s ecocide and toward wholesome relations with animals, plants, soil, land, and water. In the end, this paper claims that Carvalhaes’ theology of creation affirms a “godly animism”. Full article

18 pages, 284 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards a Public Theology of Menopause

by Emma L. Pavey

Religions 2025, 16(4), 525; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040525 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 360

Abstract

In this article, I explore the power and purpose of a public theology of menopause. I approach this both by focusing on menopause as a pivotal transition in the lives of women (and others who menstruate), and recognising how profoundly menopause intersects with [...] Read more.

In this article, I explore the power and purpose of a public theology of menopause. I approach this both by focusing on menopause as a pivotal transition in the lives of women (and others who menstruate), and recognising how profoundly menopause intersects with all our lives, the life of the planet, and the relationships between us all. This is, therefore, a public theology of menopause in the broad sense of a practiced faith that looks both inward and outward, to family, community, friend and stranger, online and offline, and that takes account of forces such as globalisation and capitalism and what this implies for our position and action. As an approach to a public theology of menopause, I propose inter-theological and interdisciplinary connections with peri/menopause and survey a range of areas foundational to the lived experience such as nature and medicine; control and power; disorientation and rage; and the centrality of culture, community and ritual. I draw on global sources and an awareness of our embeddedness in a globalised, capitalist world in ecological crisis to support a public-facing theology of menopause characterised by a concern for dignity, connection and justice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Faith in Action: Examining the Power and Purpose of a Public Theology in Contemporary Society)

19 pages, 284 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Healing and the Spiritual Dimension in Hospital Patient Care in Italy

by Denise Lombardi and Alessandro Gusman

Religions 2025, 16(4), 524; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040524 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 308

Abstract

This article is based on a research project carried out in 2019 and 2022 in two hospitals in Turin, Italy (hospitals: Le Molinette and Cottolengo). The project aimed to understand the tools available to caregivers to recognize and address the spiritual needs of [...] Read more.

This article is based on a research project carried out in 2019 and 2022 in two hospitals in Turin, Italy (hospitals: Le Molinette and Cottolengo). The project aimed to understand the tools available to caregivers to recognize and address the spiritual needs of patients in the hospital setting. The authors conducted multiple semi-structured interviews and focus groups with nurses working in the two hospitals. It was found that religious and spiritual aspects are mainly considered in the context of certain factual aspects of care (e.g., dietary prescriptions) or in the end-of-life in palliative care. A complicated framework emerges from the interviews, as the spiritual aspects of care are considered by nurses as essential for a good therapeutic relationship, but at the same time are not institutionalized within the nursing profession. The emergence of a need such as spiritual care, further challenged by the pandemic, thus becomes a means of analyzing hospital care as a specific relational sphere, where a neglected aspect is highlighted, namely, the care of the spirituality of the carers, which is constantly solicited. It is through the treatment of this second aspect of the illness that the dimension of giving and counter-giving occurs in the patient–nurse relationship. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion, Spirituality and Medicine: Insights into Contemporary Perspectives)

15 pages, 255 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcendence in Jean-Luc Marion: Negotiating Theology and Phenomenology

by Otniel A. Kish

Religions 2025, 16(4), 523; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040523 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 189

Abstract

This article proposes a reading of Marion’s phenomenology from an early text, arguing that the various phenomenological innovations which are introduced in this work are subordinated to the central concept of transcendence. This concept in Marion’s work names the relation between revelation and [...] Read more.

This article proposes a reading of Marion’s phenomenology from an early text, arguing that the various phenomenological innovations which are introduced in this work are subordinated to the central concept of transcendence. This concept in Marion’s work names the relation between revelation and experience and makes possible the disclosure of a revelatory phenomenon of radical alterity and asymmetry. Reliant on this concept, Marion’s phenomenology dramatically reconfigures the transcendental subject, the phenomenal object, and the horizon as well as their relation to certain phenomena. While Marion’s early text undergoes numerous revisions and reappears in different versions at several junctures in the development of his intervention in phenomenology, this article maintains that his central concept of transcendence retains its primacy in the structural arrangement of his other phenomenological innovations. Additionally, it will be argued that while the concept of transcendence in Marion has often been treated with suspicion by interpreters as obliquely allowing for a theological incursion into Marion’s phenomenology, such discussions generally miss how Marion’s particular construal of transcendence, as the relation between revelation and experience, necessarily allows for an a priori best explained as a theological judgement. Lastly, several questions attendant to this argument will be suggested for further development and investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)

4 pages, 135 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

The Diversity and Complexity of Evangelical Theology

by Ronald T. Michener

Religions 2025, 16(4), 522; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040522 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 99

Abstract

To say that evangelical theology is diverse is an understatement [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evangelical Theology Today: Exploring Theological Perspectives)

19 pages, 703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Individualization of Religious Rituals and Their Healing Functions in a Mobile Society—Empirical Evidence from China

by Limin Zhou and Haiyan Xing

Religions 2025, 16(4), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040521 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 153

Abstract

Existing research has often characterized religious rituals as formalized and predetermined actions involving collective participation, emphasizing their structured and communal nature. However, our empirical findings revealed that rituals, shaped by citizens’ healing needs, can also be individualized and intentionally constructed behaviors. These individualized [...] Read more.

Existing research has often characterized religious rituals as formalized and predetermined actions involving collective participation, emphasizing their structured and communal nature. However, our empirical findings revealed that rituals, shaped by citizens’ healing needs, can also be individualized and intentionally constructed behaviors. These individualized rituals were not rooted in religious beliefs, but are closely connected to Chinese citizens’ strong healing needs, which have developed in a highly mobile and socially competitive (“involuted”) society. These rituals are characterized by their orientation toward life concerns, self-interested motives, and perceived connections to mystical power. These qualities enable rituals to fulfill a broader range of healing functions. Rituals not only had a direct impact on anxiety relief, especially health and class anxiety, but also had a beneficial effect on adjustment of individual goal or behavior and social inclusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion, Ritual, and Healing)

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14 pages, 220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Rupturing of Samoa’s Foundations: On the Importance of a Public Theology

by Sam Amosa

Religions 2025, 16(4), 520; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040520 - 16 Apr 2025

Viewed by 142

Abstract

The Samoan general election of 2021 provoked an unprecedented constitutional crisis. It represented yet one more symptom in a shaking of the foundations—not just in politics but within the very nature of Samoan society. The nation’s past stability had resided in the cultural [...] Read more.

The Samoan general election of 2021 provoked an unprecedented constitutional crisis. It represented yet one more symptom in a shaking of the foundations—not just in politics but within the very nature of Samoan society. The nation’s past stability had resided in the cultural virtue of respect, which permeated its key pillars—the church, law and fa’a Samoa (the customary Samoan way of life). There had been several tremors prior to the election. These had involved court cases involving the church where the Congregational Christian Church Samoa was shown to be in the wrong. These tremors and the more substantial shaking brought about by the constitutional crisis pose several awkward questions as regards the way in which the Christian faith and the Samoan cultural way of life–fa’a Samoa—are commonly regarded as more than complimentary. They also call into question the church’s default practice of silence in the face of public issues. Is it now time to nurture and encourage the public role of the faifeau (minister) for the sake of the common good in a time of significant change? In the absence of a prophetic theology, the tremors and shaking of the foundations signify the necessity of taking some further steps in the development of a local public theology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Faith in Action: Examining the Power and Purpose of a Public Theology in Contemporary Society)

18 pages, 275 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Statistical Analysis of the Hallucination Hypothesis Used to Explain the Resurrection of Christ

by Gerald Fudge

Religions 2025, 16(4), 519; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040519 - 16 Apr 2025

Viewed by 153

Abstract

Given the centrality of the resurrection to the Christian faith, the post-crucifixion appearances of Jesus to his disciples continue to be a central topic in historical inquiry regarding the origins of the Christian faith. While a number of hypotheses have been proposed for [...] Read more.

Given the centrality of the resurrection to the Christian faith, the post-crucifixion appearances of Jesus to his disciples continue to be a central topic in historical inquiry regarding the origins of the Christian faith. While a number of hypotheses have been proposed for these post-crucifixion appearances, a leading naturalistic explanation suggests that these appearances are best explained by grief-induced bereavement hallucinations. Although scholars acknowledge that such hallucinations are somewhat unlikely, prior works have not provided a quantitative analysis of the hallucination hypothesis, so the question remains: Just how improbable is the hallucination hypothesis? This paper presents a statistical analysis to address this question for some of the hallucination scenarios proposed by scholars to show that the probabilities are extremely low, even given mitigating circumstances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Origins of Religious Beliefs)

18 pages, 291 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Quest for Unity and Autonomy: The Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church in the Diaspora

by Anatolii Babynskyi

Religions 2025, 16(4), 518; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040518 - 16 Apr 2025

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Abstract

This article examines the complex process of establishing a unified structure for the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (UGCC) within the post-World War II diaspora, focusing on the formation of the Bishops’ Conference and the concurrent pursuit of the recognition of patriarchal status. Building [...] Read more.

This article examines the complex process of establishing a unified structure for the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (UGCC) within the post-World War II diaspora, focusing on the formation of the Bishops’ Conference and the concurrent pursuit of the recognition of patriarchal status. Building on earlier inter-diocesan meetings, efforts to create a coordinating body for the dispersed UGCC episcopate gained momentum in the 1950s, culminating in the establishment of the Episcopal Conference. However, these conferences progressively revealed significant internal disagreements, particularly concerning the scope of the Conference’s authority and its relationship with the Roman Curia. The release of Josyf Slipyj from Soviet imprisonment and his subsequent exile in Rome, coupled with the proclamation of the Decree on the Eastern Catholic Churches, dramatically altered this dynamic. Slipyj’s advocacy for ritual jurisdiction clashed with the Roman Curia’s desire for centralized control and the divergent views of individual bishops. Significantly, the growing activity of the laity, characterized by persistent demands for autonomy and patriarchal status, and fueled by disillusionment with Vatican policies, played a crucial role in shaping the UGCC’s trajectory. This analysis underscores the intricate interplay of canonical, political, and personal factors that influenced the UGCC’s attempts to forge a coherent identity and assert its rights in the post-war diaspora. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light from the East: The Catholic Eastern Churches Sixty Years After Vatican II)

14 pages, 400 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Perfuming and Divine Scents in the Soteriology of Medieval Buddhism and Daoism

by Sang-ho Ro

Religions 2025, 16(4), 517; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040517 - 16 Apr 2025

Viewed by 183

Abstract

The olfactory sense and experience are considered a conduit between spirituality and the divine realm in Daoism. The ceremonial use of incense in Daoism (shixiang 侍香) has been explored from various theological perspectives and described by numerous liturgists. Despite its importance, several [...] Read more.

The olfactory sense and experience are considered a conduit between spirituality and the divine realm in Daoism. The ceremonial use of incense in Daoism (shixiang 侍香) has been explored from various theological perspectives and described by numerous liturgists. Despite its importance, several questions about the development and history of Daoist olfactory culture remain unresolved. This paper examines medieval religious dialogs concerning divine smells and smoke before and during the Tang dynasty, a period marked by the interaction and mutual influence of Daoism and Buddhism in China. I argue that medieval Daoism enhanced its soteriology by adopting the concept of vāsanā (xun 薰) from Buddhism, particularly Yogâcāra. Xuan Zang’s 玄奘 translation corpus of Vasubandhu, Cheng Weishi Lun 成唯識論, along with the treatises of two Tang Daoist liturgists Zhu Faman’s 朱法滿 and Du Guangting’s 杜光庭, reveal a shared belief that sacred smells transform the perfumed at a profound level, embedding the divine essence within them. The Yogâcāra concept of vāsanā, elucidated by Xuan Zang, was readily incorporated into Tang Daoism due to their shared soteriological interests. Tang Daoism was in the process of codifying its rituals for self-purification and collective salvation, thereby enhancing the significance of incense through its dynamic absorption of vāsanā. The olfactory practices in medieval Daoism demonstrate that East Asian medieval soteriology promoted universalism through the ritual interactions between Buddhism and Daoism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling Lifeworlds on the Rhythms of Nature: Perspectives on Daoism and Ecology in East Asia)

23 pages, 9156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Other Laocoön: How Artworks Become Canonical or Fail to Do So?

by Eugene Y. Wang

Religions 2025, 16(4), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040516 - 16 Apr 2025

Viewed by 173

Abstract

The classical Laocoön and His Son (ca. 50 CE), rediscovered in 1506 in Rome, is arguably the most illustrious artwork anchoring the entire canon of art history. Less is known about the eighth-century Chinese Laocoön that predates the Italian rediscovery of the classical [...] Read more.

The classical Laocoön and His Son (ca. 50 CE), rediscovered in 1506 in Rome, is arguably the most illustrious artwork anchoring the entire canon of art history. Less is known about the eighth-century Chinese Laocoön that predates the Italian rediscovery of the classical prototype by seven centuries. The tale of the two Laocoöns is a story of canon formation: the Italian work becomes one of the best-known artworks in the world; the Chinese one is hardly known. Why should that be the case? How do artworks become canonical? How does art acquire its canon? Does canon necessarily mean a collection of exemplary artworks? Or is canonization largely a process of ranking artists and corralling object-centered narratives? Is the Western concept of canon universally applicable or are there other ways of canonization that lead to a canon without particular objects? For these questions, the long history of Chinese art provides answers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)

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12 pages, 302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Transcendence and Its Discontents: Criticisms and Defences of the Zhuangzi in Wei-Jin Thought and Their Modern Significance

by Benjamin Coles

Religions 2025, 16(4), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040515 - 16 Apr 2025

Viewed by 171

Abstract

Although the Zhuangzi is mentioned in late Warring States and Han Dynasty texts, it was in the post-Han Wei-Jin period that it first exerted a significant influence on intellectual life, becoming a central target for both praise and criticism, much of which focused [...] Read more.

Although the Zhuangzi is mentioned in late Warring States and Han Dynasty texts, it was in the post-Han Wei-Jin period that it first exerted a significant influence on intellectual life, becoming a central target for both praise and criticism, much of which focused on its transcendent attitude toward Confucian social values and secular interests. This paper examines these discussions, focusing on criticisms from the pragmatically minded realist Confucian literati of the period, who largely regarded the text as detaching and distracting scholars from the pressing needs of the state and responses from the more sympathetic and idealist “Neo-Daoist” figures of the Dark Learning (xuanxue) movement. For the latter, the spiritual self-transcendence that could be found in the Zhuangzi text was not only a source of personal satisfaction and joy but also served an important function in Confucian ethics, leading readers to transcend narrow obsession with individual self-interest, political power and social status. While these debates express the state of Chinese society after the collapse of the Han Dynasty, they have also been seen as reflecting wider issues that have become prominent in modern Western philosophical and religious thought, notably the concept of nihilism, an association that is here critically assessed in detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Comparative Study of the Concepts of Self-Transcendence, Value and Power in the Works of Emerson and Zhuang Zi)

22 pages, 481 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Yinyuan Longqi’s “Huangbo” Writing and the Construction of “Authenticity”

by Zurong Yang and Yinyu Wu

Religions 2025, 16(4), 514; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040514 - 16 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Yinyuan Longqi 隱元隆琦 was a pivotal figure in Sino–Japanese cultural exchange. His journey to Japan to propagate Buddhism, founding of the Ōbaku sect (Huangbo zong 黃檗宗), emphasis on the orthodoxy of his Zen teachings, and crafting of an “authentic” identity profoundly influenced [...] Read more.

Yinyuan Longqi 隱元隆琦 was a pivotal figure in Sino–Japanese cultural exchange. His journey to Japan to propagate Buddhism, founding of the Ōbaku sect (Huangbo zong 黃檗宗), emphasis on the orthodoxy of his Zen teachings, and crafting of an “authentic” identity profoundly influenced Japanese Buddhism and culture. While existing studies have predominantly explored the socio–historical dimensions of Yinyuan’s construction of “authenticity” (benzhen 本真), his extensive corpus of Zen verses remains understudied. By tracing the “Huangbo” (Ōbaku) 黃檗 imagery in his writings, this study addresses how Yinyuan constructed “authenticity” through his poetic works. Before his journey to Japan, Yinyuan employed “Huangbo” imagery to articulate his personal situation and sentiment, elevating it into a symbolic representation of inner “authenticity”. In the early days after Yinyuan went to Japan, driven by the dual imperatives of promoting orthodox Zen and responding to Japanese expectations of Zen origins, he intricately intertwined “Huangbo” with Zen doctrines, transforming the imagery into a marker of “authenticity” that embodied both orthodox Zen philosophy and sectarian identity. Following the establishment of Kyoto’s Mount Huangbo, Yinyuan further reshaped the “Huangbo” imagery into a trans-geographical and cultural symbol of sectarian dharma lineage, thereby ensuring the spiritual continuity of “authenticity” across Chinese and Japanese Huangbo traditions. This process not only reflects the cross-cultural transmission of Buddhism from China to Japan but also serves as a critical lens for examining the interplay between globalization and localization in religious development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Localization, Globalization and Glocalization: Paradigm Shifts in the Study of Transmission and Transformation of Buddhism in Asia and Beyond)

16 pages, 258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Has Methodism’s ‘White History’ Determined Its ‘Black Future’? African Traditional Healing and the Methodist Church of Southern Africa

by David Elliott

Religions 2025, 16(4), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040513 - 16 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Postcolonial discourses on religion have extensively explored the intersections of race and religion. Particular research within such discourses has been conducted to explore the intersection of Whiteness and Christianity in postcolonial contexts. The Methodist Church of Southern Africa (MCSA) is an example of [...] Read more.

Postcolonial discourses on religion have extensively explored the intersections of race and religion. Particular research within such discourses has been conducted to explore the intersection of Whiteness and Christianity in postcolonial contexts. The Methodist Church of Southern Africa (MCSA) is an example of a postcolonial Christian denomination that seeks to assert itself as ‘authentically African’ whilst having a distinctly colonial, missionary history in Southern Africa. This article explores the enduring intersections of Whiteness and Christianity in the MCSA through analyzing the methodology and theoretical framework of a discussion document produced by the MCSA to explore the relationship between Methodism, ukuthwasa, and African Indigenous Religion. I contend that the MCSA structurally and epistemically, albeit unintentionally, reproduces Whiteness through privileging seemingly universal Methodist methods, theories, and concepts for producing theological knowledge that are colonially produced and continue to underscore the infrastructure of MCSA ecclesiology. The stubborn persistence of colonially inherited epistemologies is particularly evident when we see how a potentially groundbreaking document on ukuthwasa (calling) is subjected to the constraints of the very epistemic traditions it is intended to dislodge. Furthermore, I argue that, through the persistence of this epistemology, the MCSA moves to domesticate and civilize the African Indigenous in Southern Africa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Postcolonial Religion and Theology in/as Practice)

10 pages, 245 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

From Cosmopolitical Mode to Traditional Knowledge: Introduction to the Special Issue “The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China”

by Feng Qu and Thomas Michael

Religions 2025, 16(4), 512; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040512 - 16 Apr 2025

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Abstract

In his 1993 paper published in Shaman, Shi (1993) recognized that while Chinese scholars conclude that shamanism emerged and flourished in the prehistoric period and faded in post-industrial society, they are “puzzled by its vitality today” (Shi 1993, p [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China)

22 pages, 59621 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tracing Scribal Variants and Textual Transmission: A Paleographic Approach to the Nanatsu-dera Manuscript of the Dafangguang Rulai Xingqi Weimizang Jing

by Meiling Lin (Jianrong Shi)

Religions 2025, 16(4), 511; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040511 - 15 Apr 2025

Viewed by 232

Abstract

This paper examines the Nanatsu-dera manuscript of the Dafangguang Rulai Xingqi Weimizang Jing (RXWJ) through the lens of scribal practices, with a focus on variant characters (yitizi, 異體字) and textual transmission. As a “separately produced scripture” (bie sheng jing, [...] Read more.

This paper examines the Nanatsu-dera manuscript of the Dafangguang Rulai Xingqi Weimizang Jing (RXWJ) through the lens of scribal practices, with a focus on variant characters (yitizi, 異體字) and textual transmission. As a “separately produced scripture” (bie sheng jing, 別生經), the RXWJ was not included in the woodblock-printed editions of the Chinese Buddhist canon, which limited its circulation and made manuscript copies—such as the Nanatsu-dera manuscript—critical for reconstructing its textual evolution, transmission, and scribal modifications. A detailed paleographic investigation reveals scribal variants, orthographic fluidity, and phonetic substitutions, illustrating both intentional adaptations and unintentional errors in textual transmission. Comparative analysis with Dunhuang fragments and the Taishō Canon further contextualizes these variations, shedding light on the interpretive challenges scribes and readers face. The findings suggest that the Nanatsu-dera manuscript underwent three stages of transmission: (1) it originated from the Fifty-Fascicle edition circulating in China, (2) it was used as a base text (diben, 底本) for manuscript copying in Japan, and (3) it was subsequently re-copied and preliminarily collated by Japanese scribes. By tracing scribal variants and textual transmission through a paleographic approach, this research underscores the critical role of manuscript culture in preserving texts outside the canonical tradition, offering new insights into the mechanisms of Buddhist textual transmission and adaptation in medieval East Asia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Old Texts, New Insights: Exploring Buddhist Manuscripts)

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14 pages, 238 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Challenges of Canon Law in the Church of the Third Millennium: Reflections on His “Sociality” from the Italian Doctrine

by Daniela Tarantino

Religions 2025, 16(4), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040510 - 15 Apr 2025

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Abstract

In the challenges that the digital era currently poses, the Church can demonstrate how canon law, both in its cognitive and regulatory dimensions, can innovate by protecting Tradition, guaranteeing the depositum fidei, respecting the intangibility of the principles of divine law in the [...] Read more.

In the challenges that the digital era currently poses, the Church can demonstrate how canon law, both in its cognitive and regulatory dimensions, can innovate by protecting Tradition, guaranteeing the depositum fidei, respecting the intangibility of the principles of divine law in the adaptability of its content, and through a change of paradigm constituted by a plurality of techniques and shared methods that evolve, replace themselves, complement each other, and are integrated for the attainment of salus animarum, supreme lex Ecclesiae. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Canon Law and Secularization: Societal Trends and the Changing Role of Religious Law)

16 pages, 330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Early Chinese Madhyamaka Ethics: Revisiting the Subtleties of Jizang’s Claim That “Grasses and Trees Possess Buddha-Nature”

by Wei-Hung Yen

Religions 2025, 16(4), 509; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040509 - 15 Apr 2025

Viewed by 584

Abstract

Taking Jiaxiang Jizang’s (嘉祥吉藏, 549–623) statement that “grasses and trees possess Buddha-nature” (草木有佛性, cao mu you foxing) as an example of Early Chinese Madhyamaka ethics, I provide an analysis of the two main propositions of his claim and discuss the ethical significance [...] Read more.

Taking Jiaxiang Jizang’s (嘉祥吉藏, 549–623) statement that “grasses and trees possess Buddha-nature” (草木有佛性, cao mu you foxing) as an example of Early Chinese Madhyamaka ethics, I provide an analysis of the two main propositions of his claim and discuss the ethical significance thereof to highlight the characteristics of Early Chinese Madhyamaka ethics. Although the two propositions appear contradictory in a literal sense, differing criteria are employed in each to establish whether or not grasses and trees and sentient beings possess Buddha-nature—namely, dependent origination and emptiness in the first and non-attainment in the second. I also point out that the ethical significance of the first proposition exhibits a shift from ontology to moral awareness and then to moral disposition as the practitioner in moral accomplishment, while the approach of the second proposition is instead an ontological inquiry into the origins of morality, with an ethical outlook founded on the soteriological aspect of self-discipline. I conclude by showing that no single theory of Western ethics can be suitably applied to the Chinese Madhyamaka ethics of Jizang, as any such attempt would prove incompatible with his philosophical standpoint of non-attainment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Health/Psychology/Social Sciences)

14 pages, 616 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biography or Hagiography: The Story of Sengya 僧崖 in the Continuing Biographies of Eminent Monks

by Limei Chi

Religions 2025, 16(4), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040508 - 15 Apr 2025

Viewed by 195

Abstract

This paper examines how Daoxuan 道宣, the Tang Dynasty Buddhist historian and founder of the Nanshan Vinaya School, meticulously constructed the saintly image of Sengya 僧崖—a monk renowned for his auto-cremation—in his Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks (Xu gaoseng zhuan 續高僧傳). Drawing [...] Read more.

This paper examines how Daoxuan 道宣, the Tang Dynasty Buddhist historian and founder of the Nanshan Vinaya School, meticulously constructed the saintly image of Sengya 僧崖—a monk renowned for his auto-cremation—in his Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks (Xu gaoseng zhuan 續高僧傳). Drawing on a range of sources—including the now-lost Biography of the Bodhisattva Sengya and regional texts such as the Collection of Miscellaneous Records from the Shu Region—Daoxuan reconfigured Sengya’s narrative, presenting his auto-cremation as a profound religious sacrifice emblematic of transformative spiritual commitment. The analysis explores how Daoxuan navigated the doctrinal tensions between this extreme practice and the Vinaya precept of non-killing by emphasizing the practitioner’s mental state over the physical act. In doing so, he reframed self-immolation not as an aberration but as a legitimate, even exalted, path to liberation. This reinterpretation is situated within the broader context of Chinese Buddhist thought—particularly the ideas of the indestructibility of the spirit and the cosmological framework of “Heaven–Man Correspondence”—highlighting the interplay between religious symbolism, doctrinal adaptation, and lived practice. Crucially, this paper treats Daoxuan’s narrative not merely as biography, but as hagiography—a literary mode in which historical memory and religious narrative are inextricably entwined. By examining the rhetorical and ideological dimensions of this genre, this study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how religious hagiography functioned as a tool for shaping sainthood, authorizing extreme religious practices, and negotiating the spiritual and social landscapes of medieval China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

10 pages, 179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Political Polarization and Christian Nationalism in Our Pews

by Amanda Henderson

Religions 2025, 16(4), 507; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040507 - 15 Apr 2025

Viewed by 254

Abstract

Congregational leaders in the US must navigate a political landscape marked by increasing political polarization and a notable rise in support for ideas aligned with Christian nationalism. While gender, race, ethnicity, and religious affiliation have long shaped political lines, the US population has [...] Read more.

Congregational leaders in the US must navigate a political landscape marked by increasing political polarization and a notable rise in support for ideas aligned with Christian nationalism. While gender, race, ethnicity, and religious affiliation have long shaped political lines, the US population has steadily become more entrenched in partisan political divides. Recent research shows the relationship between religious identity and willingness to use violence to support political and religious ideologies. These trends profoundly affect faith communities, challenging theological perspectives, social dynamics, and civic engagement. This paper examines how political polarization and Christian nationalist impulses within mainline Christian congregations impact congregational leadership. This study identifies key factors driving these changes through qualitative analysis of case studies and quantitative research. It explores their implications for community cohesion and the broader societal fabric. The findings suggest that while some communities experience heightened internal conflict and fragmentation, others adapt by engaging in dialogue, story-sharing, and education. The paper concludes with recommendations to counter political polarization and ideological extremism through increased understanding, nuanced theological reflection, and political awareness. This research contributes to the ongoing discourse on congregational leadership and political engagement, highlighting the need for nuanced strategies to address the challenges of political polarization and Christian nationalism in the US today. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Trends in Congregational Engagement and Leadership)

27 pages, 340 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Christianity, Culture, and the Real: From Maritain’s Integral Humanism to a New Integralism?

by Mary McCaughey

Religions 2025, 16(4), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040506 - 15 Apr 2025

Viewed by 125

Abstract

Jacques Maritain’s understanding of integral humanism influenced the relationship between Christianity and culture at the Second Vatican Council, yet soon afterward, Maritain recognised that in many instances it was misinterpreted, leading Catholics and Catholic theology to a radical accommodation to secular culture. Yet [...] Read more.

Jacques Maritain’s understanding of integral humanism influenced the relationship between Christianity and culture at the Second Vatican Council, yet soon afterward, Maritain recognised that in many instances it was misinterpreted, leading Catholics and Catholic theology to a radical accommodation to secular culture. Yet Maritain continued to believe in his approach as a middle way for Christianity between integralism and liberalism. He responded to these misinterpretations by recalling the pre-political foundations of his new type of humanism and the unquestioning need for holiness to transform the culture. This article revisits Maritain’s integral humanism and restates the importance of the metaphysical foundations he articulates for dialogue with culture and politics but also argues that perhaps Maritain put too much trust in the liberal state to protect Christianity and recognise its usefulness to society. This article enquires furthermore how, in an increasingly secular culture, a more specifically public and ecclesial form of integral humanism may be needed and asks whether this means a new form of integralism. It argues to the contrary but also that to maintain her identity and transformative potential in the culture for all humanity, the Church needs to actively consider how best to connect with both her metaphysical and revelatory sources in Christian faith and manifest these publicly in the culture. It concludes by offering examples of how the Church as a sacrament of salvation in the secular world can witness to Christ at various levels of association and also accept the inevitability of providing a counter-cultural witness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Catholic Theologies of Culture)

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Religions, Volume 16, Issue 4 (April 2025) – 139 articles

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