Extreme High-Speed DED of AISI M2 Steel for Coating Application and Additive Manufacturing
Abstract
:1. Introduction and State-of-the-Art
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. System Technology
2.2. Materials
2.3. Methods
2.3.1. Single-Track Evaluation
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- Weld bead width;
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- Weld bead height;
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- Deposition area;
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- Dilution zone area.
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- No bonding defects;
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- Depth of dilution zone: 20–50 µm;
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- No pores;
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- No crack formation;
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- Set powder mass flow:
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- High productivity: 1.9 kg/h;
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- Low heat input: 0.4 kg/h.
2.3.2. Coating Deposition
2.3.3. Volume (Additive Manufacturing?)
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Single Track
3.2. Coating
3.3. Volume (AM?)
4. Conclusions
4.1. Single Track
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- Weld bead geometry: the resulting weld bead width is mainly influenced by the set beam diameter while the powder mass flow mainly affects the resulting single-track height. An increasing carrier gas flow also results in a small increase in the single-track height. The beam power only has a minor effect on the resulting single-track geometry;
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- Dilution zone: an increasing beam power results in an increasing dilution zone depth. Also, a major parameter which affects the dilution zone is the carrier gas flow because this parameter affects the interaction time between powder particle and laser beam in the EHLA process. Hence, the bonding to the substrate material as well as the generated heat input into the substrate can be controlled with the beam power and carrier gas flow.
4.2. Coating
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- The resulting coating thickness increases with a decreasing hatching parameter as a higher proportion of the prior deposited weld bead overlaps with the next deposited weld bead. The deviation of the coating thickness can be reduced with a decreasing hatching parameter; however, lack of bonding begins to occur at small hatching parameter within this study;
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- Coating parameters with a set powder mass flow of ṁ = 1.9 kg/h and ṁ = 0.4 kg/h were developed and result in an average coating thickness of 205 µm and 60 µm, respectively. Compared to the parameters provided in the literature, the powder mass flow is increased by 0.1 kg/h when applying the parameter set with a lower heat input. In the case of the parameter set with ṁ = 1.9 kg/h, the powder mass flow is increased by 1.6 kg/h;
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- The experiments with non-perpendicular deposition qualitatively indicate that the coating process tolerates a tilting angle of up to 20°. This can be potentially applied when a perpendicular deposition condition is not applicable due to interfering contours of a component.
4.3. Volume (Not AM)
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- Due to high thermal-induced stresses, which lead to crack formation in the bonding zone, the parameter set with ṁ = 1.9 kg/h cannot be applied for the deposition of bulk specimens. A variation in deposited geometries, which potentially prevents a crack formation, can be further investigated in following experiments;
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- Due to a lower generated heat input, a parameter set for additive manufacturing could be developed with the set powder mass flow of ṁ = 0.4 kg/h. However, the formation of micro cracks is identified at the area within 1 mm from the specimen edge, when bigger volumes are deposited. The micro defects need to be potentially removed in post-processing steps;
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- The conducted hardness measurements on the bulk specimen validate that a hardness of ~900 HV can be achieved without heat treatment. As a conclusion, when post-processing steps are considered, the developed process parameter can be applied for the additive manufacturing of simple geometries or repair applications. To further investigate the feasibility of depositing more complex structures and geometries, future studies need to be extended with the deposition of different geometrical features.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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[wt.%] | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
C | Si max. | Cr | Mo | V | W |
0.86–0.94 | 0.45 | 3.8–4.5 | 4.7–5.2 | 1.7–2.1 | 5.9–6.7 |
Beam Diameter [mm] | Beam Power [W] | Powder Mass Flow [kg/h] | Carrier Gas Flow [l/min] | Feed Rate [m/min] |
---|---|---|---|---|
1.4 | 2800 | 2.2 | 8 | 30 |
1.5 | ||||
1.6 | 1800–3000 | 0.4–2.2 | 6; 8 | |
1.7 | 2800 | 2.2 | 8 | |
1.8 |
Parameter set: high productivity | PL [W] | ṁ [kg/h] | QC [L/min] | dB [mm] | Vf [m/min] |
2800 | 1.9 | 8 | 1.6 | 30 | |
Single-track cross-section | |||||
Single-track properties | Width [µm] | Height [µm] | Aspect ratio [-] | Dilution zone depth [µm] | |
1223 ± 26 | 176 ± 5 | 0.14 | 28.6 | ||
Parameter set: Low heat input | PL [W] | ṁ [kg/h] | QC [L/min] | dB [mm] | Vf [m/min] |
2000 | 0.4 | 8 | 1.6 | 30 | |
Single-track cross-section | |||||
Single-track properties | Width [µm] | Height [µm] | Aspect ratio [-] | Dilution zone depth [µm] | |
927 ± 80 | 43 ± 9 | 0.05 | 39.0 |
Parameter Set | PL [W] | ṁ [kg/h] | QC [L/min] | dB [mm] | Vf [m/min] | h [mm] | Coating Thickness [µm] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High productivity | 2800 | 1.9 | 8 | 1.6 | 30 | 0.6 | 205 ± 22 |
Low heat input | 2000 | 0.4 | 0.55 | 60 ± 10 |
Parameter Set | PL [W] | ṁ [kg/h] | QC [L/min] | dB [mm] | Vf [m/min] | h [mm] | ∆z [µm] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High productivity | 2800 | 1.9 | 8 | 1.6 | 30 | 0.6 | 190 |
Low heat input | 2000 | 0.4 | 0.55 | 55 |
PL [W] | Metallographic Cross-Section | Porosity [%] |
---|---|---|
2100 | 0.95 | |
2000 | 1.23 | |
1800 | 0.68 | |
1600 | 0.11 |
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Ko, M.-U.; Cüppers, J.; Schopphoven, T.; Häfner, C. Extreme High-Speed DED of AISI M2 Steel for Coating Application and Additive Manufacturing. Coatings 2024, 14, 953. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14080953
Ko M-U, Cüppers J, Schopphoven T, Häfner C. Extreme High-Speed DED of AISI M2 Steel for Coating Application and Additive Manufacturing. Coatings. 2024; 14(8):953. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14080953
Chicago/Turabian StyleKo, Min-Uh, Julius Cüppers, Thomas Schopphoven, and Constantin Häfner. 2024. "Extreme High-Speed DED of AISI M2 Steel for Coating Application and Additive Manufacturing" Coatings 14, no. 8: 953. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14080953