Plants from Arid Zones of Mexico: Bioactive Compounds and Potential Use for Food Production

Abstract

(1) Background: Climate change has several consequences; one of them is increasing the severity of droughts. This has led to an opportunity to study arid zone plants as food sources that have potential biological activities and improve consumer health. (2) Methods: In this work, we review recent research focused on the traditional use and importance of arid zone plants, their nutritional contribution, and their beneficial effects on health when they are consumed; these effects are primarily because of their antioxidant activity, which inhibits free radicals and contributes to improved nutrition and benefits consumer health. (3) Results: Several plant-based functional food studies have shown that the consumption of bioactive compounds is a complement to drugs for preventing some chronic degenerative diseases, such as gastrointestinal diseases, diabetes, and obesity. (4) Conclusions: Given all of the previously mentioned factors, plants from arid zones are potential sources for obtaining bioactive compounds with low water requirements.

1. Introduction

Global warming and desertification are the most important reasons for exploiting crops with low water requirements [1]. Arid areas occupy 46% of the planet’s surface [2], receive less than 400 mm of annual precipitation, and are supported by more than 20% of the world’s population [3]. Arid zones are expected to expand further, leading to an increase in the severity of droughts and food insecurity [4,5]. Climate change intensifies the severity of droughts through increased global temperature, precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather changes [6]. In recent years, Mexico has been susceptible to climate change, with more than 60% of its population affected. The northern and central states of the country receive only 5 to 10% rainfall, maintaining drought conditions for prolonged periods and causing losses in traditional crops [7].

Some plants can cope with drought events due to their Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) and morphological adaptations that contribute to promoting water use efficiency. CAM plants are highly productive in arid zones with poor soils, adapting to the drought conditions and increased day and night temperatures responsible for the loss of productivity in traditional crops. The most representative CAM plants in Mexico belong to the Cactaceae, Agavaceae, and Asparagaceae families. Due to their metabolism, these species are able to open their stomata at night to fix carbon dioxide, minimizing water loss during the day [8]. The predominant physiological attributes exhibited by these plants include the existence of an extensive root system, stomatal pits, smaller leaves, leaf hairs, and waxy cuticles, which afford them greater adaptability to extreme ecosystems [9,10,11].

Historically, in Mexico, species such as agaves and cacti produced a greater edible biomass using less moisture compared to vegetable and corn crops. Civilizations inhabiting arid food systems in the Americas once relied on CAM plants for their sustenance, allowing them to produce tons of edible biomass with only one-half to one-sixth of the moisture required by tropical crops to obtain similar yields. This highlights the potential of Mexican plants as a valuable alternative for human food in the future, especially in the context of increasing water scarcity [12]. Because of this, arid zone plants (AZPs) could play a vital role in feeding in the coming years, with low maintenance and low investment [13].

AZPs are of great interest due to their nutritional contribution, mainly their fiber and amino acids [14]. Some of these plants or fruits are considered nutritionally complete food due to their varied contribution of vitamins and minerals, besides them being a potential source of bioactive compounds, mainly of phenolic compounds with important antioxidant activity useful for the prevention of diseases such as diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, and hypertension, offering a better quality of life since they eliminate the free radicals generated in our organism by environmental and other factors [15,16]. The bioactive compounds present in arid zone plants constitute a viable alternative for the prevention and treatment of various diseases, especially in communities with limited access to health services and food resources. Due to their phytochemical profile and their biological potential, they offer the opportunity for the development of foods that will increase the value of plant resources in arid zones [17].

The objective of this review is to highlight the importance of Mexican AZPs (Agave, Yucca, Opuntia, Hylocereus, and Stenocereus) with low water requirements and food potential, their traditional consumption, and their nutritional or beneficial effects on health.

2. Data Collection and Structure

A search was performed of the last 15 years (2009–2024). As a search strategy, specific words such as “Agave”, “Yucca”, “Opuntia”, “Hylocereus”, “Stenocereus”, “climate change”, “bioactive compounds”, “antioxidant activities”, and “arid zone plants” were used. A total of 123 articles were collected from various databases, such as Scopus, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, PubMed, and MDPI. Relevant articles with a focus on the food area were chosen. The relevant data were foreign, and some of the information was organized into tables. The information collected was structured, starting with arid zone plants, their nutritional contribution, traditional uses, bioactive compounds, and application in the development of bioactive foods. Complementary to the information analyzed, images and tables were created to highlight the importance of arid zone plants in terms of their application in functional foods. In addition, the importance of these low-water-requirement crops in terms of their integral use is discussed, which could increase the value of dryland agricultural systems.

3. Arid Zone Plants in Mexico

Mexico has a substantial variety of AZPs that have functional food potential, primarily in the northern states (Figure 1). Whereas arid zones represent about 56.92 million hectares out of the 138 million hectares of forest in the country, the largest population of flora is found in semi-arid areas. Other plants have adapted to dry sub-humid areas because of their adaptability and water availability, which have led to their higher economic development [18]. Within the Mexican national territory, there is a substantial biodiversity of species from arid zones that have nutritional and medicinal properties; some of these species have the potential to be exploited by the food, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries, allowing for the development of new products that will allow for their use and provide health benefits.

Agave spp. are plants endemic to the American continent that have been used as a food source for more than 10,000 years, are commonly known as maguey (Mexcalli in the Nahuatl language), and belong to the Agavaceae family [19]. There are more than 310 reported species, of which 272 are endemic to Mexico [20]. Agaves have great economic importance, they grow in arid and semi-arid areas, and they are characterized by three main parts: the leaves, which can be wide or narrow and with or without thorns; a stem (heart or “pineapple”), which is found in the center of the plant surrounded by the leaves and is rich in fermentable sugars and can be used to obtain alcohol; and, at the end of a plant’s life (8–10 years, and some species, such as A. salmiana, present a ramified inflorescence), flowers (“quiote”) [21].

Yucca spp. belong to the Asparagaceae family. Yucca spp. are endemic to North America, and they are some of the most representative succulents in Mexico, with nearly 50 species used in traditional medicine by Native Americans [22,23]. Yucca is one of the plants with the lowest water requirements, consuming about 0.015 m³/day. It does not need much work to be cultivated and tolerates drought conditions in arid and semi-arid zones, where it thrives [24].

Opuntia spp. are cacti native to Mexico with exploitation in a substantial number of industries, belonging to the Cactaceae family. They have been used as human and livestock food, in pharmaceutical development, wastewater treatment, pigment production, and soil erosion control [25]. Opuntia is a perennial shrub or tree species with a trunk and crown, 3–5 m in height, and characterized by segments called “cladodes”, which are similar in appearance to a flat, fleshy, oval-shaped leaf; most species are found in Mexico, although cultivars have spread to some areas of Europe, Africa, and Asia [26,27,28].

Opuntia spp. fruits, commonly called “tuna”, have a spherical and cylindrical-type shape with different yellow, green, red, and purple colorations due to their bioactive compounds. The fruits are small, between 7 and 9 cm long and 5 and 6 cm wide, while their weight varies between 86 and 146 g. Inside, the pulp contains seeds rich in linoleic acid, which has the potential to be exploited in nutritional supplements, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Meanwhile, its peel, whose main function is to protect the fruit, has a thickness of 0.65 mm and a coloration similar to that of its pulp, with small thorns of 3 to 10 mm and an umbilical zone. The peel comprises 40% of the fresh fruit’s weight and has potential for the extraction of starches, pectin, and fiber [29,30].

Hylocereus spp., also known as “pitahaya” or dragon fruit, are optional epiphytes that initially grow in the soil and then become epiphytes, belonging to the Cactaceae family. The pitahaya is endemic to Mexico, Martinique, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Salvador, and Colombia. Although it is cultivated in many countries, it is mostly cultivated in countries within arid, semi-arid, or water-scarce regions. They grow in warm climates (38 to 40 °C) and thrive in rainy regions but can adapt to different types of well-drained soils [31]. Depending on the variety, the flesh of the fruit is juicy and white, dark red, or yellow, and the pulp contains small black seeds. Its skin is bright red with green scales and represents 33% of the weight of the fruit; due to its appearance, the fruit is sometimes decorative [32,33].

Stenocereus spp. belong to the Cactaceae family, composing 24 species, some of which are mainly cultivated for their economic value, such as S. pruinosus, S. stellatus, S. queretaroensis, S. thurberi, S. griseus, S. laevigatus, S. longispinus, and S. huastecorum; they have been categorized as endemic to Mexico. The genus Stenocereus grows as a columnar cactus in arid and semi-arid areas, and it has low water and nutrient requirements; their reproductive season takes place between April and September. They bloom pink flowers, which can lead to small, slightly oval or spherical fruit with deciduous thorns in its skin. The fruit’s pulp can be different intense colors due to the presence of betalains (white, yellow, pink, orange, red, or purple), and it has small edible seeds, low acidity, and a sweet flavor [34,35].

Being plants with low water requirements that thrive in drought conditions, they can be considered an alternative for developing food additives or for use directly as foodstuff. The nutritional value of some of these species has not been studied enough for them to be considered food ingredients with beneficial functionality in terms of health, so it is important to raise awareness among the population of their use for their greater utilization and to encourage the population to use them for better utilization in response to the availability of low-maintenance food.

4. Nutritional Benefits and Importance of Arid Zone Plants

Several studies have evaluated the nutritional composition of plants from arid and semi-arid areas. These studies have determined their content of moisture, proteins, carbohydrates, fiber, and lipids; most of these plants are characterized by a high moisture and carbohydrate content (

Table 1. Macronutrient composition of arid zone plants.

Component (%)	Agave	Yucca Flowers	Opuntia	Opuntia Fruit	Hylocereus	Stenocereus
Moisture	6.44–8.5	50–84.2	90.1–93.7	81.68–89.96	82.5–85	81–89
Carbohydrate	60–74	6.65–9.77	4.6–8.17	1.35	8.15–13.2	8.5–10.85
Proteins	2.5–8.35	0.30–0.31	0.36–1.1	1.18	0.18–1.1	1.08–1.30
Lipids	0.3	17.55	0.1–0.14	0.71–1.1	0.1–0.57	0.10–0.49
Fiber	5–8	19.23	2.75	2.84–9.49	0.45–11.34	0.53–7.10
Ash	6–8	1.60	0.5–1.32	0.43–16.5	0.96–1.18	0.46–0.81
Authors	[19,36]	[37,38]	[39,40]	[26,41,42]	[43,44]	[45,46]

). However, in some cases, the amount of lipids and proteins is important.

Agave spp.’s main use has been for the production of distilled and non-distilled alcoholic beverages thanks to their high reserve sugar content [47]. Agaves contain mostly carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, glucose, and fructans [48]. Fructans are fructose polymers derived from sucrose with β (2→1) and/or β (2→6) bonds that can have terminal or intermediate glucose; nutritionally, they have been of interest due to their prebiotic benefits, such as soluble dietary fiber helping to improve intestinal health, as well as the improvement of the technological functions in foods such as stabilizers and sweeteners [49,50,51]. The nutritional contribution has been reported for bagasse and leaves of different species such as A. tequilana, A. salmiana, A. durangensis, A. americana, and A. angustifolia [19,36].

Yucca spp.’s flowers have been of primary interest in Yucca spp. because of their antioxidant compound content and their effect on chronic degenerative diseases [52]. The reported nutritional composition is similar among the Yucca elephantipes, Yucca filifera, and Yucca whipplei species [37,38].

Opuntia spp.’s nutritional profiles vary according to the species, the post-harvest treatment, the environmental conditions, and the age of the plant. One of the greatest nutritional compounds of interest is their natural fiber, in which the soluble fiber occurs in the form of a mucilage [27,53,54]. One of the most reported species is O. ficus-indica, the cladodes of which present a nutritional profile similar to those of O. stricta, mainly due to their high water and carbohydrate content [39,40]. Opuntia fruits are 57% of the edible fraction; most of the edible fraction is composed of water, whereas the rest comprises different nutrients, primarily carbohydrates, fiber, and proteins. In addition, it has a high content of minerals, including potassium, magnesium, and calcium, and a high content of vitamins, namely vitamin C and niacin [26]. The nutritional composition of opuntia fruits varies according to the species (O. dillenii, O. ficus-indica, and O. rubusta), which differ in terms of the quantity of seeds and coloration [41,42].

Hylocereus pulp represents 45% of the fruit. The nutritional value of dragon fruit is similar among species such as H. plyrhizus, H. undatus, and H. megalanthus, and the water content in the pulp ranges from 82.5 to 85%. It is a fruit with acceptable nutritional value because of its high content of carbohydrates, fiber, protein, and vitamins (B1, B2, B3, and C), providing some minerals, such as potassium, sodium, phosphorus, iron, and calcium [43,44].

Stenocereus or pitaya fruits contain nutrients very similar to the fruit of Hylocereus but at different concentrations. They have an acidic pH of 3.7 to 4.46 and contain carbohydrates, proteins, fiber, and fats [45]. The edible fraction of Stenocereus fruits is about 80%, which is higher than that of other cacti fruits. The nutritional content of the species S. pruinosus, S. stellatus, and S. griseus has been studied the most, where the contents are similar. S. pruinosus and S. stellatus have the highest water contents, S. stellatus the highest lipid content, and S. griseus the highest mineral contents [46].

Harnessing AZPs can help to address global challenges such as malnutrition, as they are a rich source of fiber, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. In addition, these plants offer the possibility of obtaining natural food ingredients, improving consumers’ gut microbiota, and promoting sustainability thanks to their low water requirement and resistance to extreme climates. Also, their use can help strengthen local economies in arid regions.

5. The Importance and Traditional Use of Arid Zone Plants

The use of most Mexican endemic plants is focused on medicine in accordance with the belief of the native indigenous people that some plants are able to alleviate bodily discomfort through their consumption. Recent research has helped us to understand these beliefs. However, a substantial number of these AZPs have been consumed as part of the diet or for specific purposes. Many of these plants have strong culinary importance within traditional gastronomy, as well as new food applications. Some of these uses can be seen in Figure 2.

Agaves, in Mexican culture, have been used as a source of food for people and livestock, medicine, drinks, for the preparation of certain dishes, and in honey, syrups, construction material, fibers, vinegar, and ornaments. Currently, the greatest importance is given to the production of alcoholic beverages [47,55]. Alcoholic beverages obtained from agaves have different names depending on the process and their designation of origin [56]. Some of these distillates are Tequila, Mezcal, Bacanora, and Raicilla, obtained from different species of agaves, and their names are given according to the state where the species are grown [21,57]. Meanwhile, in fermented drinks, pulque is found, with probiotic properties, and is obtained through the fermentation of aguamiel, a sweet liquid obtained from the center of species such as A. salmiana. A bread called “Pan de Pulque” is also produced from pulque [21,58].

Yucca spp. are mostly used for their flowers, which receive different names depending on the geographical area (“flor de izote”, “chochas” or “flor de palma”). It is common to see them freshly cut in local markets. These flowers are incorporated into various dishes in Mexican cuisine: salads, side dishes, and stews with various vegetables, meats, and peppers. To prepare them, the stem and pistil are removed, and then they are cooked with water and salt. One of their principal characteristics is a bitter taste, and their consumption is limited to traditional use in indigenous cultures [52].

Traditional dishes using the cladodes of Opuntia spp. have been used in traditional folk medicine due to their beneficial effects in treating chronic diseases but also as a food source because of their nutritional properties and biological activities. Their consumption is distributed worldwide due to their low cost, and in gastronomy, there is a great diversity of dishes made with this plant [59]. In some places, the plant is used as livestock food, to build fences, and for ornamental purposes [60].

Opuntia spp.’s fruit or “tuna” is used in traditional folk medicine to treat stomach-related diseases, diabetes, and obesity [61]. In ancient times, it was used to make wine; however, in current times, it is used to produce cheese, jam, and juices, in addition to various compounds of interest to the food industry. Fruit residues are also used as fodder for animals in dry seasons [62].

In the pre-Hispanic Mexican population, pitaya and pitahaya fruits were an important source of food because of their water and nutrient content, but parts of the plant such as the stems have also been used for gastritis problems. Because of their flavor, the fruits have been consumed as fresh fruit or in processed products such as dried fruits and liquors [63]. The pulp of Hylocereus has nutritional and healing properties; its consumption can help reduce blood sugar levels, improve nutrient absorption, and reduce blood cholesterol, while the leaves have antibacterial properties that have been used in the treatment of infectious diseases, and the stems can help to improve the health of certain people. Due to its traditional consumption, there are some theories that indicate that the fruit of Hylocereus prevents colon cancer and improves the functioning of the brain and kidneys and visual acuity [44].

6. Bioactive Compounds in Arid Zone Plants and Their Usage as Foodstuff

The consumption of foods rich in bioactive compounds has been associated with the prevention of diseases such as diabetes mellitus, obesity, liver disease, and inflammatory bowel diseases. These conditions have been linked to the consumption of foods containing contaminants and chemical additives, which affect the diversity of the intestinal microbiota and generate dysbiosis. This, in turn, negatively impacts intestinal permeability, causes inflammation, alters the immune system, and affects energy metabolism. Bioactive compounds have the ability to modulate the intestinal microbiota, which has generated increasing interest in recent years [64,65]. AZPs contain several bioactive compounds that have been evaluated for human consumption, and several of them have been shown to contribute to improved health.

Table 2. Bioactive compounds found in arid zone plants and their functionality.

Plants	Bioactive Compounds	Concentrations	Biological Activities	Author
Agave salmiana and A. angustifolia	Phenolic compounds 1,* Flavonoid 2,* Saponins 3,*	3850–8480 8.35 7630–171,450	Prebiotic activity Antioxidant activity Anti-inflammatory activity Antimicrobial activity Antifungal activity	[66,67]
Yucca gloriosa and Y. schidigera	Phenolic compounds 4,* Saponins 4,*	35,180–96,610 151.1	Antioxidant activity Anti-inflammatory activity Antifungal activity	[68,69]
Opuntia ficus-indica and O. dillenii (Cladodes)	Organic acids 4,* Total chlorophyll 5,* Phenolic compounds 4,* Flavanols 4,* Flavonols 4,* Flavonones 4,* Stilbenes 4,* Phenolic acids 4,*	259.7 9120 161.1–16,730 125–1660 8440 1690 700 35.6–4240	Antioxidant activity Antidiabetic activity Anti-inflammatory activity Prebiotic activity	[40,70]
Opuntia ficus-indica (purple, red, and yellow fruits)	Phenolic compounds 1,* Flavonoids 2,* Total betalains 6,7,* Betacyanins 6,* Betaxanthins 7,*	2387.1–3619.0 983.5–1447.8 310–2580 130–1830 180–760	Antioxidant activity Anti-inflammatory activity Antidiabetic activity Anticancer activity	[71]
Hylocereus undatus, costaricensis, and polyrhizus	Phenolic compounds 4,** Total betalains 4,** Betacyanin 4,** Betacyanins 4,** Betaxanthins 4,**	480–683.6 1080–1660 0–28,600 920–1100 160–560	Antioxidant activity	[72,73]
Stenocereuspruinosus and S. stellatus	Phenolic compounds 4,* Hydroxycinnamoyl derivatives 4,* Flavonols 4,* Flavanones 4,* Betacyanins 4,* Betaxanthins 4,*	53.75–121.86 7.51–15.61 4.08–10.59 14.89–16.25 162.07–5423.38 17,706.72–22,053.46678	Antioxidant potential	[34,46]

¹ µg gallic acid equivalent.g⁻¹, ² µg quercetin equivalent.g⁻¹, ³ µg protodioscin equivalent.g⁻¹ DW, ⁴ µg.g⁻¹, ⁵ mg.g⁻¹, ⁶ µg indicaxanthin equivalent.g⁻¹, ⁷ µg betanin equivalent.g⁻¹. * Dry weight, ** fresh weight.

presents the bioactive compounds present in AZPs and briefly describes their functional activities.

6.1. Agave Leaves

Agave leaves, which are considered agro-industrial waste, are of interest because they contain bioactive compounds with substantial biological activities [57,74]. Saponins, flavonoids, homoisoflavonoids, phenolic acids, and fatty acids have been identified in different agave cultivars. Saponins and homoisoflavonoids have shown anti-inflammatory and ulceroprotective activities in rats treated with extracts from A. pygmaea (81 and 85% protection) and A. angustifolia var. Marginata (84% and 91% protection). These results compared to the 96.875% protection offered by ranitidine suggest that these extracts could be an alternative to drug treatment for ulcers [75]. Crude extracts of A. americana have shown the presence of alkaloids, saponins, tannins, polyphenols, and flavonoids. The antibacterial activity of these extracts has been evaluated in the crude and solvent fractions; the results showed an efficient bactericidal effect, with an inhibition of 17 to 40 mm, comparable to that of gentamicin, on pathogenic bacteria commonly present in food such as S. typhi, S. aureus, and E. coli. The bactericidal effect obtained is mostly due to the saponins; however, other compounds could also interfere with the antimicrobial activity, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic compounds [76]. Although agave leaves have mostly been used to develop biopolymers, recent research suggests the use of their bioactive compounds in the pharmaceutical industry. Nevertheless, the application of agave leaves in the food industry is of primary relevance.

6.2. Pulque and Agave Syrup

Pulque, a beverage of traditional relevance, has been used for the prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal diseases; the Lactobacillus it contains exert an anti-inflammatory effect, whereas its exopolysaccharides reduce cholesterol [77]. The fructooligosaccharides in agave syrup help to activate the immune system, consequently increasing resistance to infections [78]. Recent research suggests that the consumption of agave fructans can help to treat obesity, metabolic syndrome, type II diabetes, and gastrointestinal diseases such as Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, and irritable bowel syndrome [79,80]. The most important component of mead and pulque is the substantial diversity of microorganisms that confer a probiotic effect. Researchers have identified yeasts of the Candida, Kluyveromyces, Saccharomyces, and Clavispora genera and bacteria from the Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, and Acetobacter genera in mead and pulque [81]. In addition, their fructan content can lead to a prebiotic effect, which means that these beverages can have a symbiotic effect on the gastrointestinal microbiota. This symbiotic effect improves health by producing short-chain fatty acids such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate [82]. Kammogenin-, manogenin-, gentrogenin-, and hecogenin-derived saponins have been identified in mead; the saponin content heavily relies on the maturity of the agave used to produce the mead. These saponins have several biological properties, such as anticancer, antibacterial, and antifungal activities. In addition, their antioxidant effect has been reported to be equivalent to 904.8 μM of gallic acid, which means they can also provide antioxidant-associated health benefits [83].

6.3. Yucca Bark, Flowers, and Fruits

Yucca spp. have a high saponin content, which has surfactant and detergent properties. These plants are rich in polyphenols, with antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties, and they are used to improve intestinal health [84,85]. Additionally, there are several other compounds that have shown antimicrobial activity towards relevant bacteria in food safety, namely Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Staphylococcus aureus. These compounds are saponins (Yuccaloeside A, B, C, E, Degalactotigonin, gitogenin 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-β-lycotetraoside, Spirostan-3-ol, spirostanol-3-ol-dihexose, di-glucoside, and hecogenin); phenolic compounds (Resveratrol, Resveratrol, trans-2,3’,5,5’-tetrahydroxy-4’ methoxystilbene, Yuccaol A, B, C, D, E, Gloriosaol A, B, C, D, E, maleic acid, citraconic acid, muconic acid, and caffeic acid); and other compounds, such as flavones, flavonoids, and some glycosides [68,69,86].

One of the negative effects of food infections by bacteria is intestinal inflammation; it has been shown that the compounds present in yucca reduce inflammation through the effect of their antioxidant activity, capable of eliminating free radicals. For example, a study demonstrated through a model of acute inflammation in mice a reduction in edema in the paws using 200 mg/kg of Yucca gigantea extract, in which a reduction from 0.3703 mm to 0.01 mm was obtained after four hours of study, so the antimicrobial effect of this plant promises the ability to help to reduce or prevent the intestinal inflammation caused by pathogens and, in turn, could prevent cancer when incorporated into functional foods, nutraceuticals, or natural drugs [86]. Morales-Figueroa and colleagues determined the antimicrobial activity of the phenolic compounds and saponins found in Y. baccata against Gram-negative bacteria with relevance in the pharmaceutical and food industries, such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella typhi. Values of 100 mg mL⁻¹ and 120 mg mL⁻¹ of the minimum inhibitory concentration were estimated for pathogenic bacteria; the inhibitory effect was higher for large negative bacteria due to the presence of phenolic compounds and saponins [87]. Similarly, the oil from Y. aloifolia Linn fruits was characterized, and the results showed the presence of fatty acids, namely linoleic acid (73.38%), oleic acid (13.52%), and palmitic acid (8.18%), and a total of 204 mg/100 g of vitamin E. All of these compounds provide potential for antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, and neuro- and cardioprotective effects, in addition to cholesterol-lowering properties. In vivo and clinical studies should be conducted to determine this, but this could lead to considering Y. aloifolia fruit oil a functional oil with beneficial effects on human health that could be used for disease prevention [88].

6.4. Opuntia Cladodes and Fruits

Several studies working with Opuntia plants have shown in vitro and in vivo that their biological activities are beneficial to health [26,59]. Their cladodes and fruits are rich in phenolic compounds and terpenoids [89,90,91,92]. Consuming Opuntia cladodes and fruits regulates weight, controls diabetes, and reduces cholesterol levels; also, they are a good source of potassium [27,53,54]. When Opuntia fruits are consumed raw, their bioactive compounds show antimicrobial, antiproliferative, hypolipidemic, and glycemic-control-related effects and positive effects on colonic health [30].

Fermenting the juice from O. humifusa cladodes with lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and the own plant’s enzymes has been shown to improve its functional properties. Fermentation increased the polyphenol content during the first 24 h; after fermenting the juice with LAB for 60 h, the final amount of polyphenols was in the range of 723 to 785 μg GAE mL⁻¹. Testing Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptococcus salivarius, and Weissella confuse and a mixture of the three bacteria by adding an enzyme to all of the treatments, treatment with the enzyme alone was used, which showed a lower antioxidant activity. Therefore, this helped to determine that the interaction of the LAB in the presence of an enzyme works to increase the phenolic content of the treatments. Two of the compounds identified to be responsible for the antioxidant activity were quercetin and isorhamnetin, which are flavonoid aglycones with strong antioxidant power. However, the isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside content decreased to undetectable levels after fermentation, which might lead us to believe the highest antioxidant activity relies on quercetin. This study demonstrates that fermentation with certain bacteria may be suitable for enhancing the beneficial effects of the compounds found in these plants and may have a greater effect on consumer health [93].

O. littoralis’s cladodes and fruits have already been characterized. Kaempferol was quantitated at 503.96 mg g⁻¹ in its cladodes and 428.96 mg g⁻¹ in its fruits. Terpenes were quantitated at 16.75 mg g⁻¹ in its cladodes and 15.69 mg g⁻¹ in its fruits. Additionally, the total content of betalains in the fruits was determined to 59.5 mg g⁻¹, of which 23 mg g⁻¹ were betaxanthins and 36.7 mg g⁻¹ were betacyanins. Similarly, Opuntia fruits have significant antidiabetic activity due to α-glucosidase inhibitors. A microplate study showed them to have antidiabetic activity due to α-glucosidase inhibitors of IC50 57.7% compared an inhibition of IC50 30.57% with the control drug (Acarbose). This effect is given by compounds present in the fruit such as Kaempferol and ferulic acid, which help in lowering blood glucose. This could lead to Opuntia fruits being considered for the prevention, treatment, or both of glycemia and type 2 diabetes mellitus [94].

Opuntia fruits are rich in organic acids, including phenolic compounds, betalains, and carotenoids [95,96,97,98]. Their fiber content have caused significant reductions in total cholesterol in hyperlipidemic populations; however, these effects were lower in patients that consumed the fruits and cladodes [54]. The fruit’s antioxidant, hypoglycemic, anti-ulcerogenic, and anti-inflammatory activity has also been documented [29].

The antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds in O. microdasys’s and O. macrorhiza’s fruits were quantitated. The fruits’ peels contain phenolic compounds, with a content of 0.58 mg g-1 for O. microdasys peel and 1.55 mg g⁻¹ for O. macrorhiza peel, and betacyanins, with a content of 3.6 for O. microdasys skin and 131 mg g⁻¹ O. macrorhiza skin. The same study demonstrated the antifungal and antimicrobial potential that these fruit peels have; the fruit’s peel showed the inhibition of microorganisms and leads us to think that these fruit peels have important food applications [99].

A comparative study of the betalain content between O. ficus-indica fruits from Mexican and Spanish cultivars showed that both cultivars have the potential to be used for their functional ingredients. The betalain content was quantitated at 2422.5 μg g⁻¹ for the Mexican cultivar and 1650.6 μg g⁻¹ for the Spanish cultivar in purple dry whole fruit. In dry red whole fruit, it was determined to be 582.6 μg g⁻¹ for the Mexican cultivar and to be 819.8 μg g⁻¹ for the Spanish cultivar. Finally, for yellow dry whole fruit, the betalain content was quantitated to be 587.9 μg g⁻¹ for the Mexican cultivar and 156.2 μg g⁻¹ for the Spanish cultivar. Additionally, the piscidic acid content was determined to be 43,882.7 μg g⁻¹ in the dry peel of the purple Spanish cultivar. A betalain content of 2422.5 and 1650.6 μg g⁻¹ in the dry base of the whole fruit (purple), 582.6 and 819.8 μg g⁻¹ in the dry base of the whole fruit (red), and 587.9 and 156.2 μg g⁻¹ in the dry base of the whole fruit (yellow), respectively, and important contents of phenolic compounds such as piscidic acid, with a value of 43,882.7 μg g⁻¹ in the dry base in the peel of the purple Spanish cultivar, were identified. These results indicate that the content of betalains and phenols in these cultivars is important for their use in the development of foods and nutraceuticals, as well as in the investigation of their biological activities [71].

6.5. Pitahaya and Pitaya Fruits

Hylocereus (pitahaya) fruits, also known as dragon fruits, contain several phenolic compounds that exert antioxidant and antimicrobial activities [43,100,101]. Their main component is betalains [34]. Dragon fruit pulp also contains oligosaccharides of different molecular weights that can provide prebiotic effects on beneficial strains, including Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. Its consistent consumption regulates cholesterol metabolism and ameliorates weight control and diabetes [43].

The seeds are a source of antioxidants and essential fatty acids such as linoleic acid, and they may be a new source of essential oils because they contain them in higher amounts than canola, flaxseed, or sesame seeds [43]. The bioactive compounds in the fruit have shown to aid in obesity control, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and type II diabetes, and they prevent colon and intestine inflammation [102].

Stenocereus (pitaya) fruits are distinctive due to their betalain content [103], which is responsible for the color of the fruit, and the water-soluble phenolic compounds that confer the fruits their antioxidant activity. The presence of both betalains and phenolic compounds makes pitaya fruits a better alternative to other natural pigments [34,104].

6.6. Biological Activities

The bioactive compounds present in arid zone plants such as polyphenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, and anthocyanins possess antidiabetic properties in enhancing α-glycosidase inhibitory activity, improving glucose tolerance by activating P13K/Akt and inhibiting JNK signaling, improving serum lipid levels, and reversing insulin resistance by regulating the expression levels of insulin receptor and glycolytic enzymes by downregulating the expression of insulin receptor-1 substrate and gluconeogenesis enzymes [64].

The consumption of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols has been shown to have an anti-inflammatory effect in the intestines by decreasing the release of inflammatory cytokines and intestinal oxidative stress. This is achieved through the inactivation of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B-cells (NF-κB), modulation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPk), and arachidonic acid pathways. This effect occurs by inhibiting the activation of lipopolysaccharides (LPSs)/Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/NF-κB by inhibiting the relative abundance of LPS-producing gut microbiota. In addition, hyperoside acts through the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) makorin ring finger protein (MKRN1)/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) axis to modulate the Th17/Treg axis, conferring protection against inflammatory bowel diseases [105].

Studies have shown that the consumption of plant polyphenols in patients with obesity has the ability to promote the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which have a positive effect on human health. Increased SCFA abundance has been shown to activate GPR41 in enteroendocrine cells, leading to the increased production and secretion of the hormone peptide YY (PYY). Increased PYY levels promote satiety by slowing intestinal motility and stomach emptying and improving insulin sensitivity, which have had good effects in the treatment of metabolic disorders associated with obesity [106].

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have the ability to inhibit a variety of biological processes, including necrosis, autophagy, G2/M cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and cell growth related to chronic degenerative diseases. Activation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway is also caused by oxidative stress, as well as the transcription factor NF-κB. Compounds with antioxidant activities prevent the excessive synthesis of free radicals and their damaging reactions. Some compounds such as carotenoids are able to scavenge free radicals, such as the hydrophilic scavengers [glutathione (GSH) and ascorbate] present in the cytosolic, mitochondrial, and nuclear compartments. They protect cells by preventing lipid peroxidation of membrane lipids. In turn, phenolic acids, terpenoids, alkaloids, and flavonoids act through various pathways, exerting an effect on cellular free radicals due to their antioxidant activity; natural sources of bioactive compounds represent a promising option for the production of antioxidant agents [107].

Due to recent evidence, the bioactive compounds present in plants from arid zones may have potential for application in functional foods or nutraceuticals to help to improve or prevent the diseases with the highest rates in the world’s population, with the greatest value being placed on the use of the species described in this paper.

7. The Use of Traditional Crops for the Development of Functional Foods

Currently, the area of functional foods has focused on using raw foods with bioactive activities that can contribute to improving consumer health. Many of these foods have been associated with a lower incidence of health problems. The incorporation of bioactive compounds into foods generates various effects, such as modification of the physical characteristics of the product, reduced caloric intake, and improved absorption of bioactive compounds and nutrients during digestion. Ultimately, these bioactive compounds represent a healthier alternative to chemical additives, as they offer better stability and bioavailability of their benefits, making them the optimal choice for the development of food ingredients [108,109,110].

There is a direct relationship between food and health; however, factors such as urbanization, economic development, and lifestyle changes have negatively affected dietary habits [111]. Therefore, improving nutrition through foods, plants, and fruits with functional effects is of great importance to reducing health problems.

Foods developed with AZPs are mainly characterized by their antioxidant content and have shown a good response in biological activities, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, probiotic, and prebiotic properties. These foods could contribute to the prevention of health problems when combined with proper nutrition and physical activity.

Table 3. Use of arid zone plants in foods with functional potential and/or improvements in physical properties.

Plants	Food or Additive	Functional Contribution	Bioactive Compounds	Author
Agave spp.	Powdered extract of Agave salmiana fructans	Prebiotic activity and anti-inflammatory activity	Fructans	[112]
	Cookies with Agave angustifolia fructans as a fat substitute	Improved rheological properties	Fructans	[113]
	Reduced-fat cheeses	Improved nutritional qualities	Fructans	[114]
	Ice cream	Improved thermal properties	Fructans	[115]
	Dehydrated apple enriched with prebiotics	Prebiotic activity and sensory properties	Fructans	[116]
Yucca spp.	Antimicrobial control in food Food packaging development	Antimicrobial activity	Saponins	[117]
Opuntia spp. (Cladodes)	Pasta with flour from Opuntia cladodes	Antioxidant activity and hypoglycemic activity	Fiber	[53]
	Prickly pear cladode juice	Antioxidant activity	Gallic acid, epicatechin gallate, vanillic acid, procyanidin B2, epicatechin, p-Coumaric acid, epigallocatechin, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, benzoic acid, hyperoside, isoquercetin, rutin, and quercetin	[89]
	Gluten-free cookies with flour from cacti	Antioxidant activity	Soluble and insoluble fiber, flavonoids, phenolic acids, leutin, β-carotene, zeaxanthin, and α-carotene	[90]
	Bread with Opuntia ficus-indica mucilage	Antioxidant activity	Mucilage	[92]
	Pigment	Antioxidant activity	Betacyanins and betaxanthins	[95]
Opuntia spp. (fruit)	Gummy candy	Antioxidant activity	Betalains	[97]
	Cookies enriched with prickly pear peel flour	Antioxidant activity	Carotenoids, betalains, betacyanins, and betaxantins	[96]
	Edible films	Antioxidant activity and antimicrobial activity	Betalains	[98]
	Yogurt	Antioxidant activity	Betacyanins, betanin, isobetanin, betanidin, phyllocactin, and hyloccerenin	[118]
	Wine	Antioxidant activity	Succinic acid, citric acid, and acetic acid	[119]
Hylocereus spp.	Gummy candy	Antioxidant activity	Betalains	[120]
	Chinese steamed bread enriched with pitaya peel powder	Antioxidant activity	Batacyanin	[121]
	Reduced-fat ice cream	Antioxidant activity Technological and physicochemical properties	Betacyanins, fiber, and minerals	[122]
	Natural colorant	Antioxidant activity	Betalains, isobetanin, betanidin, 17-Decarboxy-neobetanin, isobetanidin, neobetanin, and 2-Decarbaxy-neobetanin	[103]
	Pitaya juice powder	Antioxidant activity	Betalains, fructose, glucose, sucrose, citric acid, malic acid, and tartaric acid	[123]
Stenocereus spp.	Low-sugar food colorant	Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity	Betaxantinas	[104]

presents the foods developed from AZPs and their studied functionality.

Although AZPs have been used for centuries as a food source, these traditional practices have diminished over time, however, representing an undervalued food resource. The implementation of emerging technologies for the extraction and use of bioactive compounds in conjunction with current food technology would not only facilitate their integration into food products but would also contribute to preserving and revaluing the ancestral knowledge and cultural richness linked to the traditional uses of these species.

8. Conclusions

Plants from the arid zones of Mexico represent a valuable source of food due to their low demand for water resources, which contributes to the sustainable development of the communities that inhabit these regions. Their nutritional and bioactive content positions them as an excellent food alternative for preventing and moderating diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and digestive disorders. In addition, many cacti fruits are an important source of natural food additives, such as colorants with beneficial properties, whose use could reduce the incidence of diseases related to the consumption of chemical additives in food.

The current applications and traditional uses of plants belonging to the Cactaceae, Agavaceae, and Asparagaceae families highlight their potential as an economic source of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, flavonoids, betalains, and saponins. These compounds exhibit a wide variety of biological activities, including antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties, making them promising ingredients for the development of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food ingredients.

Although the efficacy of certain specific compounds has been demonstrated, further research is still needed to comprehensively identify the complete metabolite profiles and their respective biological activities. In addition, information on wild or undervalued species is still limited. Mexico harbors a vast diversity of endemic species, but to date, only a few have been studied in depth. This represents a significant opportunity for research and development on food applications, with the potential to benefit the economy of local communities and encourage the more sustainable use of natural resources.