Energy Harvesting Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks and Mobile Devices: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Power Management Techniques
3. Energy Harvesting Sources and Applications to Mobile Systems
3.1. Photovoltaic Energy
3.2. Photovoltaic Energy Applications
3.3. Electromagnetic Transducers
3.4. Electromagnetic Transducers Applications
3.5. Electrostatic Transducers
3.6. Electrostatic Transducers Applications
3.7. Piezoelectric Transducers
3.8. Piezoelectric Transducers Applications
3.9. Thermal Energy
3.10. Thermal Energy Applications
3.11. RFID Tags
3.12. RFID Applications
3.13. Environmental Radiofrequency Sources
3.14. Environmental Radiofrequency Sources Applications
3.15. Biofuel Energy
3.16. Biofuel Energy Applications
3.17. Energy Harvesting from Multiple Energy Sources
4. Recent Advances and Challenges
5. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Energy Source | Harvested Power |
---|---|
Ambient light (direct sunlight) | 100 mW/cm2 |
Ambient light (bright sunny day) | 15 mW/cm2 |
Ambient light (cloudy day) | 150 µW/cm2 |
Ambient light (indoors) | 10–100 µW/cm2 |
Vibrational (human motion) | 4 µW/cm3 |
Vibrational (machines) | 800 µW/cm3 |
Thermoelectric | 60 µW/cm2 |
Ambient airflow | 1 mW/cm2 |
Acoustic noise (100 dB) | 960 nW/cm3 |
Ambient radio frequency | <1 µW/cm2 |
Biochemical energy | 10–100 µW/cm2 |
Transducer Type | Application | Generated Power | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Solar modules | Casio A700 solar wristwatch | - | [67] |
Solar modules | Logitech K750 solar keyboard | - | [68] |
4-4.0-100 solar panels | Berkeley/Crossbow nodes | 198 mW | [69] |
Solar panels in 100 cm2 area | Wireless structural health monitoring | 780 J in a single day | [70] |
14 solar modules | Tracking the position of zebras | 0.4 W in full sun | [71] |
Solar modules | Tracking the position of turtles | 0.1–1.7 kJ in 10 days | [72] |
Solar modules | Tracking the position of pink iguanas | - | [73] |
4 V 100 mA solar panel | Studies of hydrological cycles in forest | 139 mWh in 30 min | [74] |
5 cm × 5 cm solar cell | Measurement of temperature and humidity | 70 mW in full sun | [75] |
Array of PIN photodiodes | Multi sensors mobile system | 1.29 J in 5 h | [76] |
37 mm × 82 mm solar panel | Berkeley’s Telos mote | 40 mA 4.8 V in full sun | [54] |
112 cm2 photovoltaic module | Tmotesky sensor platform | 50 mW | [77] |
a-Si solar cell (AM1815) | Tyndall sensor node | >320 µW | [78] |
Few cm2 solar cell | Temperature and humidity sensor node | 72.74 µW | [79] |
7.4 cm × 5.5 cm solar panel | Outdoor sensor node | - | [80] |
Perovskite PV cells | Wireless temperature sensor | 14.5 µW | [81] |
Organic PV cells | Indoor sensor nodes | 0.14 mW | [82] |
GaAs PV cells | Wireless temperature sensor | 70.8 nW at 200 lux | [83] |
Transducer Type | Application | Generated Power | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Magnetic spring generator | EM generator in a backpack | 300 µW–2.5 mW | [84] |
Magnetic spring generator | EM generator in a backpack | 7.4 W | [85] |
Gear motor in door axis | Power from door motion | 3.9 J for an open/close action | [86] |
Regenerative shock absorber | Power from vibrations in a car | 19 W average power | [87] |
Permanent magnet generator | Power from sea waves | kWs range | [88] |
Electromechanical generator | Power from large structures vibrations | >100 W | [89] |
EM frequency up-conversion | Power from human hand shaking | 2.15 mW | [90] |
EM rotational transducer | Power from human hand swing | 55 µW | [91] |
Magnet + cantilever + coil | EM generator with frequency-up conversion | 544.7 µ at 88.6 mV | [92] |
EM rotational transducer | Rotary magnetic generator in shoe | 230 mW | [93] |
Transducer Type | Application | Generated Power | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Honeycomb-type variable capacitor | Power from ventricular wall motion | 36 µW | [95] |
Multi-layer cylindrical capacitor | Power from blood pressure | 20 mJ per heart beat | [96] |
Angular electrode + SiO2 electret | Power for cardiac and neural implants | 9.6 µW | [97] |
ES transducer + SiO2/Si3N4 electret | Tire pressure monitoring system | 60 µW at 60 Km/h | [98] |
Variable capacitor (60–250 pF) | Power from vibrations | 1.6 µW | [99] |
ES transducer + electret + turbine | Power from wind energy | 200 µW | [100] |
ES transducer + CYTOP electret | Power from vibrations | 4.95 µW | [101] |
ES transducer + potassium ions electret | Power from vibrations of infrastructures | 115 µW | [102] |
Transducer Type | Application | Generated Power | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Piezo-ceramic | Piezoelectric pushbutton | 0.5 mJ 3 V single push | [104] |
PVDF + PZT | Footsteps mechanical energy | 1.3 mW–8.4 mW | [105] |
PVDF | Footsteps mechanical energy | 1 mW | [106] |
β-PVDF | Footsteps mechanical energy | 0.050 J in 1 h | [107] |
PVDF + PZT | Tree-shaped wind power system | 4 µW (PVDF) + 2.24 µW (PZT) | [108] |
PVDF | Backpack with piezoelectric straps | 45.6 mW under 444 N load | [109] |
Interdigitated piezo-fiber | Power from mechanical stress of car tires | 1.37 µW/mm3 | [110] |
PZT | Piezoelectric energy harvesting mat | 10 mW at 60 N | [111] |
Different piezo-transducers | Power from rainwater drops | - | [112] |
PZT | Power from bicycle vibrations | 1.977 mW at 20 km/h | [113] |
Transducer Type | Application | Generated Power | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
GM200-71-14-16 TEG module | Wearable wireless sensor nodes | 336.9 µW | [120] |
30 × 34 × 3.2 mm TEG | Control of a ZigBee based radiator valve | 150 mW at ΔT = 34 °C | [121] |
TEG | Power from waste heat in exhaust pipes | 2 W peak | [122] |
TEG | Wireless sensor node in aircraft | 26.5 J in 60 min flight | [123] |
TEG integrated with sensor | Soil moisture measurement | 34.1 J in a sunny day | [124] |
Commercial TEG | Absolute pressure measurement | 109 µW at 15 °C | [125] |
TK-1-3-S TEG module | Axle bearing degradation monitoring | 19.3 mW | [126] |
TEG | Power from mobile devices heath | 300–600 mW | [127] |
Commercial TEG (TEC12706) | Self-powered wireless temperature sensor | 13–15 kW/m2 | [128] |
Bi-Te and Sb-Te TEG | Human heat-powered wristwatch | 22.5 µW | [129] |
Fabric-TEG composite | Wearable sensor node | 146.9 nW at ΔT = 27 °C | [130] |
Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3 TEG | Mobile electroencephalogram system | Few mW | [131] |
Poly SiGe TEG | Wireless human body applications | 0.3 nW at 150 mV | [132] |
TEG | Wireless fall events detection | 40–520 µW | [133] |
TES1-12704 TEG module | Wearable sensor system | 5–50 µW | [134] |
Source of Power | Application | Generated Power | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
RFID (UWB) | Metal crack detection and characterization | - | [141] |
RFID (3–7.5 GHz) | Humidity measurement | - | [142] |
RFID (5.25 Ghz + 7.35 Ghz) | Angular rotation monitoring | - | [143] |
RFID (915 MHz) | Temperature measurement in concrete | - | [144] |
RFID (860 MHz) | Pressure measurement | - | [145] |
RFID (800–860 MHz) | Concentration measurement of solutions | - | [146] |
RFID (860 MHz) | Food quality monitoring | - | [147] |
RFID (860–960 MHz) | Environmental monitoring | >5.1 µW | [148] |
RFID (868 MHz) | Vehicle stability control system | 50 µW at 3 m | [149] |
NFC (13.56 MHz) | Color sensor for pH measurement | 5 mA at 3.3 V | [150] |
NFC (13.56 MHz) | Compact dosimetry system | - | [151] |
NFC (13.56 MHz) | Ethanol concentration measurement | - | [152] |
Source of Power | Application | Generated Power | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
464.55 MHz at 2 W | Wireless wearable device | 146.9 mW | [154] |
DTV (539 MHz) + cellular (738 MHz) | Temperature and light sensor node | >15.8 µW | [155] |
915 Mhz band | Mica2 sensor mote | 37 µW | [156] |
Digital TV UHF (500–600 MHz) | Microcontroller based sensor node | - | [157] |
Base station (915 MHz) | Wireless telemetry system | >110 µW | [158] |
900 MHz band | Wireless gas sensor node | >250 µW | [159] |
1.8–1.9 GHz band | Wireless sensor node | 400 pW | [160] |
DTV + GSM900 + GSM1800 + 3G | Wireless sensor node | 7.4 µW/cm3 | [161] |
315 MHz + 400 MHz + 915 MHz + 2.4 GHz | Charging of mobile devices | 743.63 µW | [162] |
Transducer Type | Application | Generated Power | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Needle anode and gas-diffusion chatode | Power from fructose in raw grape | 26.5 µW at 340 mV | [165] |
Enzyme modified glassy carbon electrodes | Power from living plants | 9 µW∙cm−2 at 0.4 V | [166] |
Enzyme modified buckypaper electrodes | Power from glucose in oranges | 670 µW | [167] |
Pt-Ir anode and gas diffusion chatode | Power from glucose in fish | 8.6 µW/cm2 at 15 °C | [168] |
Compacted graphite disc electrodes | Power from glucose in rats blood | 6.5 µW at 0.13 V | [169] |
Carbon nanotube/enzyme electrodes | Power from glucose in rats blood | 38.7 µW | [170] |
Multiwalled carbon nanotubes electrodes | Power from clams hemolymph | 10 µW | [171] |
Enzyme modified graphite rods electrodes | Power from insects hemolymph | 0.12 µW at 100 mV | [172] |
Enzyme modified KB electrodes | Power from cockroaches hemolymph | 333 µW at 500 mV | [173] |
Enzyme modified electrodes | Power from lobsters hemolymph | >160 µW at 1.2 V | [174] |
Enzyme modified buckypaper electrodes | Power from snails hemolymph | 7.45 µW | [175] |
Enzyme modified gold plated electrodes | Power for glucose sensor patch | 14 µW | [176] |
Enzyme modified MWCN electrodes | Power for glucose sensor | 67.86 µW/cm2 | [177] |
Enzyme modified buckypaper electrodes | Power from glucose in human blood | >300 µW | [178] |
Transducer Type | Application | Generated Power | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
TEG + 125 kHz RFID | Temperature measurement in pipes | >20 mW | [180] |
Photovoltaic + NFC | Skin temperature measurement | 502 µW indoor, 4 mW outdoor | [181] |
Photovoltaic + NFC | Multi sensors smart bracelet | 190 µ indoor, 24 mW outdoor | [182] |
Photovoltaic + RF | Wireless sensor node | - | [183] |
Photovoltaic + Piezoelectric | Wireless indoor sensor node | 85.94 µW | [184] |
Photovoltaic + TEG + vibrations | Acoustic emissions measurement | >4.93 mW | [185] |
Photovoltaic + TEG | Wearable sensor node for health care | 4.9∙10−4 mW/cm2 | [186] |
Photovoltaic + piezoelectric + RF | Wireless sensor node | 6.2 mW | [187] |
Photovoltaic + TEG | Indoor wireless sensor node | 621 µW | [188] |
TEG + RF | Heart rate measurement | 60 µW | [189] |
TEG + RF | Fall detection system | - | [190] |
Piezoelectric + Electromagnetic | Wearable sensor node | 75.6 mJ in 270 s | [191] |
Piezoelectric + Electromagnetic | Wearable sensor node | 1–100 µW | [192] |
Piezoelectric + Electromagnetic | Bridges health monitoring sensor | 155.7 µW | [193] |
Photovoltaic + TEG + Wind | Outdoor wireless sensor node | 7805.09 J in a day | [194] |
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Grossi, M. Energy Harvesting Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks and Mobile Devices: A Review. Electronics 2021, 10, 661. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10060661
Grossi M. Energy Harvesting Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks and Mobile Devices: A Review. Electronics. 2021; 10(6):661. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10060661
Chicago/Turabian StyleGrossi, Marco. 2021. "Energy Harvesting Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks and Mobile Devices: A Review" Electronics 10, no. 6: 661. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10060661