Hydrogen Energy in Electrical Power Systems: A Review and Future Outlook
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Current Status of Hydrogen Production and Storage
2.1. Review of Production of Hydrogen from Electrolytic Water
- (a)
- Technology for electrolyzing water
- (b)
- Electrolyzer technology
2.2. Developments in Hydrogen Storage Technologies
- (a)
- Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen
- (b)
- Liquid Hydrogen
- (c)
- Chemical Hydrogen Carriers
- (d)
- Metal Hydrides
- (e)
- Solid Hydrides
2.3. Application of Integration of Hydrogen Storage with Renewable Energy Sources
3. Key Technologies for Hydrogen Electrification
3.1. Hydrogen Electrification Technology
- (a)
- Principle of operation
- (b)
- Structure of Fuel Cell Systems
3.2. Hydrogen Ancillary Service Technologies
3.3. Hydrogen–Electric Power Systems
4. Key Technologies for Hydrogen–Electric Coupling
4.1. Load-Side Electric–Hydrogen Coupling
4.2. Power-Side Electric–Hydrogen Coupling
- (a)
- Electricity-transmission method
- (b)
- Hydrogen-delivery mode
- (c)
- Local equilibrium
5. Outlook for the Development of Hydrogen Energy Applications
5.1. Reducing Electrolysis Costs and Improving Preparation Yields
5.2. Development of New Materials to Enhance Hydrogen Storage Capacity
5.3. Optimizing Control Methods to Improve Power Generation Efficiency
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Fuel | Ratio of Energy and Mass (MJ/kg) | |
---|---|---|
Higher Heating Value | Lower Heating Value | |
Hydrogen | 142 | 120 |
Methane | 55.5 | 50 |
Liquefied Petroleum Gas | 50.0 | 46.1 |
Gasoline | 46.4 | 44 |
Natural Gas | 55 | 50 |
Coal (anthracite) | 24 | 35 |
Ethanol | 29.7 | 26.8 |
Parameters | AWEs | PEMEs | SOEs |
---|---|---|---|
Technology maturity | Widespread commercialization | commercialization | R&D phase |
Temperature/°C | 60–80 | 50–80 | 600–1000 |
Pressure/bar | 10–30 | 20–50 | 1–15 |
Current density/A·cm−2 | <0.45 | 1.0–2.0 | 0.3–1.0 |
Individual electric power/MW | 6 | 2 | 0.15 |
Electrical efficiency/% | 62–82 | 67–82 | 81–86 |
System energy consumption/kWh·m−1 | 4.2–4.8 | 4.4–5.0 | 2.5–3.5 |
Area of electric stack/m2 | 3–3.6 | <0.13 | <0.06 |
Hydrogen production rate/m3·h−1 | 1400 | 400 | <10 |
Reactor life/kh | 55–120 | 60–100 | 8–20 |
System life/a | 20–30 | 10–20 | - |
Hydrogen production purity % | >99.8 | 99.999 | - |
Cold start time/min | 60–120 | 5–10 | >60 |
Hot start time/s | 60–300 | <10 | 900 |
Investment cost/USD·kW−1 | 800–1500 | 400–2100 | >2000 |
Category | Pros | Cons | Cost | Comment |
---|---|---|---|---|
Compressed Gaseous Hydrogen | Mature, suitable for short-distance transportation and distribution | The storage density is relatively low, requiring high-pressure containers, which limits the transportation volume | Short-distance transportation (within 200 km): USD 0.30 to USD 0.50 per kg of H2. Long-distance transportation: USD 1.00 to USD 3.00 per kg of H2 | Suitable for localized or short-distance applications, but the costs for long-distance transportation are higher. |
Liquid Hydrogen | High storage density, suitable for large-scale, long-distance transportation | The liquefaction process has high energy consumption, strict low-temperature storage with transportation requirements, and may have evaporation loss | Medium distances (around 500 km): USD 1.00–USD 2.00/kg H2 | Liquid hydrogen is suitable for long-distance transportation, but the high cost of the liquefaction process and cryogenic storage equipment has a significant impact on the overall cost. High storage density makes it suitable for long-distance transportation but requires considering the energy consumption during the liquefaction process. |
Chemical Hydrogen Carriers | Easy to store and transport at room temperature and pressure, with large transportation volume and high safety | Requires additional hydrogen extraction processes, affecting the overall efficiency | Depending on the chemical carrier used, the cost is between USD 1.00 and USD 5.00/kg H2. e.g., the transport cost of using ammonia as a carrier is about USD 1.50–USD 3.00/kg H2, and the additional cost of hydrogen extraction from the carrier should be considered. | Suitable for long-distance or cross-border transportation, safer at normal temperature and pressure, but the overall efficiency is low. |
Metal Hydrides | High hydrogen storage density, stable storage, suitable for small-scale or portable applications | The hydrogen storage/release process is slow, and the cost of metal hydride material is high | USD 5.00–USD 10.00/kg H2, mainly due to high material cost and low efficiency of hydrogen storage/release process. | High storage density, but the process of releasing hydrogen is complex and usually used for special applications rather than large-scale transportation. |
Solid Hydrogen | Storage density is extremely high, theoretically | The preparation and processing techniques are complex with high cost, and mainly in the lab stage | At present, it is mainly in the research stage, and the economy has not been fully evaluated. If the practical application is considered, the cost may be extremely high, far more than other forms. | Suitable for experiments and specific applications; commercial and large-scale applications are not yet available. |
Typology | Operating Temperature | Battery Pack Voltage Efficiency | Advantage | Drawbacks |
---|---|---|---|---|
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) | 80 °C–100 °C (low temperature) or 200 °C (high temperature) | 50–60% | Fast start-up and versatility | Catalysts are expensive |
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) | 800 °C–1000 °C | 60–80% | With solid electrolytes, the reaction heat is reusable and less costly. | Presence of metal corrosion problems |
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) | Approx 70 °C | About 60% | Good current response | Limited application scenarios |
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) | Approx 650 °C | 60–80% | Good conductivity and high current density | Slow start, only for large-scale use. |
Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) | Approx 180 °C | More than 80% | High efficiency | Low current density and high catalyst cost |
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Dai, S.; Shen, P.; Deng, W.; Yu, Q. Hydrogen Energy in Electrical Power Systems: A Review and Future Outlook. Electronics 2024, 13, 3370. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13173370
Dai S, Shen P, Deng W, Yu Q. Hydrogen Energy in Electrical Power Systems: A Review and Future Outlook. Electronics. 2024; 13(17):3370. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13173370
Chicago/Turabian StyleDai, Siting, Pin Shen, Wenyang Deng, and Qing Yu. 2024. "Hydrogen Energy in Electrical Power Systems: A Review and Future Outlook" Electronics 13, no. 17: 3370. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13173370