Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems for Building and Industrial Applications: Issues and Challenges
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Water Mist Fire Systems
2.1. Methods of Generating Water Mist
2.1.1. Impingement Nozzles
2.1.2. Pressure Jet Nozzle
2.1.3. Twin-fluid Nozzle
2.2. Fire Control and Suppression Mechanisms
2.2.1. Heat Extractions
2.2.2. Oxygen Displacement
2.2.3. Radiation Attenuation
3. Applications of Water Mist Systems
3.1. Machinery Spaces
3.2. Power Generation Turbines
3.3. Electrical Equipment
3.4. Transportation
3.5. Road and Rail Tunnels
3.6. Nuclear Power Generation
3.7. Explosion Hazard Mitigation
3.8. Cooking Areas
3.9. Commercial Buildings
3.10. Residential Buildings
4. Research and Development on Water Mist Systems
4.1. Spray Characteristics
4.1.1. Effect of Different Water Mist Additives
4.1.2. Effect of Different Operating Pressure
4.1.3. Effect of Different Water Droplet Sizes
4.1.4. Effect of Different Flow Rates
4.1.5. Effect of Different Nozzle K-Factors
4.1.6. Effect of Different Spray Momentum
4.1.7. Effect of Different Spray Angles
4.2. Fire Compartments
4.2.1. Effect of Different Ceiling Heights
4.2.2. Effect of Different Enclosure Volumes and Ventilation
4.2.3. Effect of Different Dynamic Mixing Situations
4.2.4. Effect of External Environment and wind conditions
4.3. Current Products for Water Mist Systems
4.3.1. Low-Pressure and Intermate-Pressure Systems
Tyco AquaMist ULF
VID FireKill APS Atrium System
4.3.2. High-Pressure Systems
Tyco AquaMist FOG
Marioff HI-FOG
Danfoss SEM-SAFE System
5. Design Codes for Water Mist Systems
5.1. American Standards
5.2. Australian Standards
5.3. British Standards
5.4. European Standard
5.5. Test protocols
6. Challenges and Issues
6.1. Operation and Maintenance
6.2. Design and Standardisation
6.3. Application Challenges
6.4. Economic Challenges
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
- (a)
- Further research can be conducted to develop corrosion-resistant materials and other methods of reducing the potential to block small orifice nozzles.
- (b)
- More research on the performance of water mist suppression at various nozzle heights, fire compartment configurations, and various fuel types and fire scenarios can be conducted.
- (c)
- A theoretical basis can be developed for the design process that can be applied to a wide range of hazards and can be used for a prescriptive design and installation standard.
- (d)
- New test protocols should be developed and tested for water mist in light-hazard occupancies and residential building spaces as an alternative to fire sprinklers.
- (e)
- Environmental benefits associated with water mist can be investigated for an alternative to gaseous suppression systems across the life cycle of products.
- (f)
- Research should be conducted to look at the potential water mist may have in assisting in fire protection in new and emerging fire hazards that the industry is trying to adapt to, such as bushfire protection, combustible cladding, electric battery storage facilities, electric cars, automated warehouse facilities, switchboards, datacentres, and compact residential buildings.
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature:
µm | Micrometre or micron | Critical radiation intensity required for piloted ignition | |
O2 | Oxygen | Heat vaporisation of water | |
K | Kelvin | Pressure inlet at nozzle | |
Flame extinguishing temperature | Q | Nozzle flow rate | |
Theoretical flame temperature | k | Discharge coefficient K-factor | |
Surface temperature of fuel | Spray momentum | ||
Mass fraction of oxygen | Mass of liquid-phase water | ||
Mass fraction of fuel vapour | Mass of vapour-phase water | ||
r | Stoichiometric ratio | Mass of air entrained by mist | |
Heat removed per unit area | Velocity vector of water mist | ||
Convective heat transfer per unit area | °C | Degree Celsius | |
Heat required to produce a unit mass of vapour | kg | Kilograms | |
Burning rate per unit area | kJ | Kilojoules | |
Heat transfer to the fuel surface | H2O | Dihydrogen monoxide | |
Heat lost from the surface | C2H2 | Acetylene | |
Minimum water flow rate | CH2 | Methylene | |
Fuel surface area | CO | Carbon monoxide | |
Emissivity of the radiator | m | Meter | |
Stefan–Boltzmann constant | CO2 | Carbon dioxide | |
View factor of the fuel load | |||
Mean absolute temperature of radiation source | |||
Mean absolute temperature of the surface | |||
Abbreviations: | |||
ULF | Ultra-low flow | ||
FM | Factory Mutual | ||
HRR | Heat release rate | ||
NFPA | National Fire Protection Association | ||
AS | Australian Standard | ||
FDS | Fire Dynamics Simulator | ||
LOC | Limiting oxygen concentration | ||
PMMA | Polymethyl methacrylate | ||
Lpm | Litres per minute | ||
MC | Multi-component |
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Material | Extinction (O2) (% vol.) | Material | Extinction (O2) (% vol.) |
---|---|---|---|
Liquid Fuel | Solid Fuel | ||
Unleaded gasoline (dish) | 12.48 | Polyethylene (low density) | 11.39 |
Methanol (dish) | 11.64 | Polystyrene (high density) | 11.21 |
Methanol (wick) | 12.33 | PMMA | 10.48 |
Ethanol (dish) | 12.40 | Red oak | 12.26 |
Ethanol (wick) | 13.35 | White maple | 14.66 |
Corn oil (dish) | 12.29 | Corrugated paper (tri-wall) | 12.86 |
Corrugated paper (single layer) | 12.94 | ||
Kraft linerboard | 12.33 |
Key Parameter | Findings | Methodology |
---|---|---|
Suppression additives |
| E E E |
Operating Pressure |
| E E E E E E E,E,E E E E |
Water Droplet Diameter |
| N,E N,E N,E N E/N N E/N,E E |
Flow Rate |
| E,E,E E,E E,E,E E,E,E E,E E E E E |
Spray Angle |
| E E,E,E E E |
Nozzle Height |
| E E E E E,E,E E |
Compartment Size and Ventilation | E E/N |
Author/ Manufacturer | Operating pressure (bar) | Flow Rate (lpm) | K-Factor (lpm/bar0.5) | Spray Angle (°) | Droplet Diameter Dv0.9 (µm) | Nozzle Height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Published Research System Parameters | ||||||
Kim et al. 2003 [81] | 13 | 6 | 1.66 | 70 | 121 | 1.8 |
Yang et al. 2010 [87] | 100 | 11.9 | 1.19 | 48 | 46 | 2.5 |
Vaari 2012 [88] | 70 | 6.45 | 0.77 | 30 | 200 | 4 |
Jenft et al. 2014 [49] | 10.13 | 6.3 | 1.97 | 65 | 112 | 2.45 |
Yinshui et al. 2014 [20] | 2–12 | 2–5 | - | 60–120 | 80–130 | 2 |
Lee et al. 2019 [13] | 10 | 22.45 | 7.1 | 76 | 124.6 | 2 |
Ha et al. 2021 [44] | 10 | 22.8 | 7.25 | 90 | 124.6 | 12.5 |
Industry-Used System Design Parameters | ||||||
Aqua Mist ULF [21] | 12.8 | 12.5 | 3.5 | - | 100–200 | 8 |
VID Fire Kill APS [89] | 10 | 32 | 10.3 | - | <300 | Unlimited |
Aqua Mist FOG [90] | 100 | 4.4 | 0.44 | - | 50 | 5 |
Marioff HI-FOG [46] | 40 | 7.3 | 1.15 | 45–68 | 50 | 5 |
SEM-SAFE [47] | 100 | 39 | 3.9 | - | 10–50 | 5.5 |
Design Criteria | NFPA 750—2022 [8] | AS 4587—2020 [94] |
---|---|---|
Pipework and fittings | Maximum pressure developed by the system at 54 °C or higher temperatures as specified in the manufacturer’s listing. | Shall be rated or selected for at least the maximum system design pressure at 50 °C. |
Nozzle operating pressure | In accordance with the nozzle’s listing. | In accordance with the nozzle’s listing. |
Occupancies |
|
|
Extinguishing criteria | Approved test plan from the authority with jurisdiction. | Extinguishment in half the prescribed discharge duration. |
Discharge duration | Various for open nozzle systems; 60 min for sealed. | |
Hangers/ Supports | In accordance with NFPA 13 Standard for the installation of sprinkler systems, and shall be listed. | Hanger shall conform to the requirements of AS 2118.1 automatic fire sprinklers. |
Nozzle spray angle | The spray angle is set by the listed nozzle used. | The spray angle is set by the listed nozzle used. |
Flow rate | Selected as appropriate for the hazard. | |
Maximum height | The minimum and maximum heights shall be in accordance with the manufacturer’s listing. | In accordance with the nozzle’s listing. |
Maximum coverage per nozzle | Listing. | In total, 18 m2 for sealed nozzle systems unless greater in listing. |
Maximum spacing of nozzles | In accordance with the nozzle’s listing. | In accordance with the nozzle’s listing. |
Maximum nozzle spacing from walls | In accordance with the nozzle’s listing. | In accordance with the nozzle’s listing. |
Activation method | Detection system, automatic, or manual. | Detection system, automatic, or manual. |
Application methods |
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System limitations | Light hazards = 4831 m2 Ordinary hazards = 4831 m2 | Sealed nozzle system = 9000 m2 Open nozzle system = as per listing |
Temperature rating of nozzle | Temperature rating chosen depending on the maximum ambient temperature. Table for guidance is provided. | Heat rating to be 30 °C above highest ambient temperature. |
Water supply | At least one automatic water supply. | Public water, automatic pumps, or containers (pressure cylinders). |
Connecting to public water supply | Light hazards—minimum 378 lpm Ordinary Hazards—minimum 946 lpm | NIL |
Water droplet size | <1000 µm within the nozzle operating range | <1000 µm at minimum operating pressure. |
Acceptable listing authority (test protocol) | JAS-ANS, CSIRO Actifire, FM, LPCB, SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, UL, VdS | Organisation that is acceptable to the authority with jurisdiction. |
Agency | Water Mist Fire Test Protocol |
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International Maritime Organization (IMO) | IMO Res. A800 (19): Revised Guidelines for Approval of Sprinkler Systems Equivalent to that referred to in SOLAS Regulations II-2, Chap. 12 |
Appendix 1, “Component Manufacturing Standards for Water Mist Nozzles” | |
Appendix 2, “Fire Test Procedures for Equivalent Sprinkler Systems in Accommodation, Public Space and Service Areas on Passenger Ships”, December 1995 | |
IMO MSC/Circular 668: Alternative Arrangements for Halon Fire Extinguishing Systems in Machinery Spaces and Pump Rooms | |
Appendix A: “Component Manufacturing Standards of Equivalent Water-Based Fire Extinguishing Systems”, 1994 | |
Appendix B: “Interim Test Method for Fire Testing Equivalent Water-Based Fire Extinguishing Systems for Machinery Spaces of Category A and Cargo Pump Rooms”, 1994 | |
As amended in MSC/Circ. 728: “Amendments to the Test Method for Equivalent Water-Based Fire-Extinguishing Systems for Machinery Spaces of Category A and Cargo Pump-Rooms contained in MSC/Circ. 668, Annex B”, June 1996 | |
MSC/Circ. 913: “Guidelines for the Approval of Fixed Water-Based Local Application Fire-Fighting Systems for use in Category A Machinery Spaces”, 4 June 1999 | |
MSC/Circ. 1165, “Revised Guidelines for the Approval of Equivalent Water-Based Fire-Extinguishing Systems for Machinery Spaces and Cargo Pump-Rooms”, 10 June 2005 | |
FM Global Research Corporation | FM Global, Approval Standard for Water Mist Systems, Class Number 5560, 2009 |
(a) Appendix A, B, C: Fire Tests for Water Mist Systems for the Protection of Machinery Spaces, Special Hazard Machinery Spaces, Combustion Turbines with Volumes up to, and including, 2825 ft3 (80 m3) (respectively) | |
(b) Appendices D, E, and F: Fire Tests for Water Mist Systems for the Protection of Machinery Spaces, Special Hazard Machinery Spaces, Combustion Turbines with Volumes up to and including 9175 ft3 (260 m3) (respectively) | |
(c) Appendix G: Fire Tests for Water Mist Systems for the Protection of Machinery Spaces and Special Hazard Machinery Spaces with Volumes Exceeding 9175 ft3 (260 m3) | |
(d) Appendix H: Fire Tests for Water Mist Systems for the Protection of Combustion Turbines with Volumes Exceeding 9175 ft3 (260 m3) | |
(e) Appendix I: Fire Tests for Water Mist Systems for the Protection of Light Hazard Occupancies | |
(f) Appendix J: Fire Tests for Water Mist Systems for the Protection of Wet Benches and Other Similar Processing Equipment | |
(g) Appendix K: Fires Tests for Water Mist Systems for the Protection of Local Applications | |
(h) Appendix L: Fire Tests for Water Mist Systems for the Protection of Industrial Oil Cookers | |
(i) Appendix M: Fire Tests for Water Mist Systems for the Protection of Computer Room Subfloors | |
(j) Appendix N: Other Occupancies Which FM Global Has an Interest in Protecting with Water Mist Systems | |
Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) | ANSI/UL 2167, Proposed First Edition of the Standard for Water Mist Nozzles for Fire Protection Service, June 1998 |
Machinery Spaces; Passenger Cabin Fire Tests; Passenger Cabins Greater than 12 m2; Public Space Fire Tests; Residential Area Fire Tests; Light Hazard Area Fire Tests; Ordinary Hazard I and II Tests; Nozzle Construction Design, Marking, and Performance Requirements. |
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© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Farrell, K.; Hassan, M.K.; Hossain, M.D.; Ahmed, B.; Rahnamayiezekavat, P.; Douglas, G.; Saha, S. Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems for Building and Industrial Applications: Issues and Challenges. Fire 2023, 6, 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6020040
Farrell K, Hassan MK, Hossain MD, Ahmed B, Rahnamayiezekavat P, Douglas G, Saha S. Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems for Building and Industrial Applications: Issues and Challenges. Fire. 2023; 6(2):40. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6020040
Chicago/Turabian StyleFarrell, Kyle, Md Kamrul Hassan, Md Delwar Hossain, Bulbul Ahmed, Payam Rahnamayiezekavat, Grahame Douglas, and Swapan Saha. 2023. "Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems for Building and Industrial Applications: Issues and Challenges" Fire 6, no. 2: 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6020040
APA StyleFarrell, K., Hassan, M. K., Hossain, M. D., Ahmed, B., Rahnamayiezekavat, P., Douglas, G., & Saha, S. (2023). Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems for Building and Industrial Applications: Issues and Challenges. Fire, 6(2), 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6020040