Carotenoids in Cereal Food Crops: Composition and Retention throughout Grain Storage and Food Processing
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Carotenoid Metabolism
2.1. Biosynthesis
2.2. Degradation
3. Wheat
3.1. Composition
3.2. Storage
3.3. Processing
4. Maize
4.1. Composition
4.2. Storage
4.3. Processing
5. Rice
5.1. Composition
5.2. Storage
5.3. Processing
6. Sorghum
6.1. Composition
6.2. Storage
6.3. Processing
7. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Faustino, J.F.; Ribeiro-Silva, A.; Dalto, R.F.; Souza, M.M.; Furtado, J.M.; de Melo Rocha, G.; Alves, M.; Rocha, E.M. Vitamin A and the eye: An old tale for modern times. Arq. Bras. Oftalmol. 2016, 79, 56–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gale, C.R.; Hall, N.F.; Phillips, D.I.W.; Martyn, C.N. Lutein and zeaxanthin status and risk of age-related macular degeneration. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2003, 44, 2461–2465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bressler, N.M. Age-related macular degeneration is the leading cause of blindness. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2004, 291, 1900–1901. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jacques, P.F.; Lyass, A.; Massaro, J.M.; Vasan, R.S.; D’Agostino, R.B. Relation of lycopene intake and consumption of tomato products to incident cardiovascular disease. Br. J. Nutr. 2013, 110, 545–551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lerner, A.J.; Gustaw-Rothenberg, K.; Smyth, S.; Casadesus, G. Retinoids for treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Biofactors 2012, 38, 84–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sluijs, I.; Cadier, E.; Beulens, J.W.; van der A, D.L.; Spijkerman, A.M.; van der Schouw, Y.T. Dietary intake of carotenoids and risk of type 2 diabetes. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2015, 25, 376–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jung, S.; Wu, K.; Giovannucci, E.; Spiegelman, D.; Willett, W.C.; Smith-Warner, S.A. Carotenoid intake and risk of colorectal adenomas in a cohort of male health professionals. Cancer Causes Control. 2013, 24, 705–717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bonet, M.L.; Canas, J.A.; Ribot, J.; Palou, A. Carotenoids and their conversion products in the control of adipocyte function, adiposity and obesity. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2015, 572, 112–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sixth Report on the World Nutrition Situation: Progress in Nutrition; United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition: Geneva, Switzerland, 2010.
- Bohn, T. Carotenoids, chronic disease prevention and dietary recommendations. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 2017, 87, 121–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boon, C.S.; McClements, D.J.; Weiss, J.; Decker, E.A. Factors influencing the chemical stability of carotenoids in foods. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2010, 50, 515–532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Panfili, G.; Fratianni, A.; Irano, M. Improved normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography procedure for the determination of carotenoids in cereals. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2004, 52, 6373–6377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Moreau, R.A.; Harron, A.F.; Powell, M.J.; Hoyt, J.L. A comparison of the levels of oil, carotenoids, and lipolytic enzyme activities in modern lines and hybrids of grain sorghum. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2016, 93, 569–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lamberts, L.; Delcour, J.A. Carotenoids in raw and parboiled brown and milled rice. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 11914–11919. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ndolo, V.U.; Beta, T. Distribution of carotenoids in endosperm, germ, and aleurone fractions of cereal grain kernels. Food Chem. 2013, 139, 663–671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rodriguez-Concepcion, M. Supply of precursors for carotenoid biosynthesis in plants. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2010, 504, 118–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suwarno, W.B.; Pixley, K.V.; Palacios-Rojas, N.; Kaeppler, S.M.; Babu, R. Genome-wide association analysis reveals new targets for carotenoid biofortification in maize. Appl. Genet. 2015, 128, 851–864. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhai, S.; Xia, X.; He, Z. Carotenoids in staple cereals: Metabolism, regulation, and genetic manipulation. Front. Plant Sci. 2016, 7, 1197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cazzonelli, C.I. Carotenoids in nature: Insights from plants and beyond. Func. Plant Biol. 2011, 38, 833–847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tang, G. Bioconversion of dietary provitamin A carotenoids to vitamin A in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 91, 1468S–1473S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Auldridge, M.E.; McCarty, D.R.; Klee, H.J. Plant carotenoid cleavage oxygenases and their apocarotenoid products. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 2006, 9, 315–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siedow, J.N. Plant lipoxygenase, structure and function. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 1991, 42, 145–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schaub, P.; Wüst, F.; Koschmieder, J.; Yu, Q.; Virk, P.; Tohme, J.; Beyer, P. Nonenzymatic β-carotene degradation in provitamin A-biofortified crop plants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2017, 65, 6588–6598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shewry, P.R.; Hey, S.J. The contribution of wheat to human diet and health. Food Energy Secur. 2015, 4, 178–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qin, X.; Zhang, W.; Dubcovsky, J.; Tian, L. Cloning and comparative analysis of carotenoid β-hydroxylase genes provides new insights into carotenoid metabolism in tetraploid (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum) and hexaploid (Triticum Aestivum) Wheat Grains. Plant Mol. Biol. 2012, 80, 631–646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Digesù, A.M.; Platani, C.; Cattivelli, L.; Mangini, G.; Blanco, A. Genetic variability in yellow pigment components in cultivated and wild tetraploid wheats. J. Cereal Sci. 2009, 50, 210–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leenhardt, F.; Lyan, B.; Rock, E.; Boussard, A.; Potus, J.; Chanliaud, E.; Remesy, C. Genetic variability of carotenoid concentration, and lipoxygenase and peroxidase activities among cultivated wheat species and bread wheat varieties. Eur. J. Agron. 2006, 25, 170–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdel-Aal, E.-S.M.; Young, J.C.; Rabalski, I.; Hucl, P.; Fregeau-Reid, J. Identification and quantification of seed carotenoids in selected wheat species. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55, 787–794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdel-Aal, e.-S.M.; Young, J.C.; Akhtar, H.; Rabalski, I. Stability of lutein in wholegrain bakery products naturally high in lutein or fortified with free lutein. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 10109–10117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rey, M.D.; Calderón, M.C.; Rodrigo, M.J.; Zacarías, L.; Alós, E.; Prieto, P. Novel bread wheat lines enriched in carotenoids carrying Hordeum chilense chromosome arms in the ph1b background. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0134598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, W.; Dubcovsky, J. Association between allelic variation at the Phytoene synthase 1 gene and yellow pigment content in the wheat grain. Appl. Genet. 2008, 116, 635–645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Colasuonno, P.; Lozito, M.L.; Marcotuli, I.; Nigro, D.; Giancaspro, A.; Mangini, G.; De Vita, P.; Mastrangelo, A.M.; Pecchioni, N.; Houston, K.; et al. The carotenoid biosynthetic and catabolic genes in wheat and their association with yellow pigments. BMC Genom. 2017, 18, 122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Patil, R.; Oak, M.; Deshpande, A.; Tamhankar, S. Development of a robust marker for Psy-1 homoeologs and its application in improvement of yellow pigment content in durum wheat. Mol. Breed. 2018, 38, 136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, X.Y.; Zhang, Y.L.; He, Z.H.; Wu, Y.P.; Xiao, Y.G.; Ma, C.X.; Xia, X.C. Characterization of phytoene synthase 1 gene (Psy1) located on common wheat chromosome 7A and development of a functional marker. Appl. Genet. 2008, 116, 213–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- He, X.Y.; He, Z.H.; Ma, W.; Appels, R.; Xia, X.C. Allelic variants of phytoene synthase 1 (Psy1) genes in Chinese and CIMMYT wheat cultivars and development of functional markers for flour colour. Mol. Breed. 2009, 23, 553–563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dong, C.H.; Ma, Z.Y.; Xia, X.C.; Zhang, L.P.; He, Z.H. Allelic variation at the TaZds-A1 locus on wheat chromosome 2A and development of a functional marker in common wheat. J. Integr. Agric. 2012, 11, 1067–1074. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cong, L.; Wang, C.; Chen, L.; Liu, H.J.; Yang, G.X.; He, G.Y. Expression of phytoene synthase1 and carotene desaturase crtl genes result in an increase in the total carotenoids content in transgenic elite wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 8652–8660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, C.; Zeng, J.; Li, Y.; Hu, W.; Chen, L.; Miao, Y.; Deng, P.; Yuan, C.; Ma, C.; Chen, X.; et al. Enrichment of provitamin A content in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) by introduction of the bacterial carotenoid biosynthetic genes CrtB and CrtI. J. Exp. Bot. 2014, 65, 2545–2556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zeng, J.; Wang, X.; Miao, Y.; Wang, C.; Zang, M.; Chen, X.; Li, M.; Li, X.; Wang, Q.; Li, K.; et al. Metabolic engineering of wheat provitamin A by simultaneously overexpressing CrtB and silencing carotenoid hydroxylase (TaHYD). J. Agric. Food Chem. 2015, 63, 9083–9092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mellado–Ortega, E.; Atienza, S.G.; Hornero–Méndez, D. Carotenoid evolution during postharvest storage of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum conv. durum) and tritordeum (×Tritordeum Ascherson et Graebner) grains. J. Cereal Sci. 2015, 62, 134–142. [Google Scholar]
- Mellado-Ortega, E.; Hornero-Méndez, D. Effect of long-term storage on the free and esterified carotenoids in durum wheat (Triticum turgidum conv. durum) and tritordeum (×Tritordeum Ascherson et Graebner) grains. Food Res. Int. 2017, 99, 877–890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bunea, A.; Socaciu, C.; Pintea, A. Xanthophyll esters in fruits and vegetables. Not. Bot. Horti. Agrobo. 2014, 42, 310–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mellado-Ortega, E.; Hornero-Méndez, D. Lutein esterification in wheat flour increases the carotenoid retention and is induced by storage temperatures. Foods 2017, 6, 111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Owens, B.F.; Lipka, A.E.; Magallanes-Lundback, M.; Tiede, T.; Diepenbrock, C.H.; Kandianis, C.B.; Kim, E.; Cepela, J.; Mateos-Hernandez, M.; Buell, C.R.; et al. A foundation for provitamin A biofortification of maize: Genome-wide association and genomic prediction models of carotenoid levels. Genetics 2014, 198, 1699–1716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kumar, S.; Sangwan, S.; Yadav, R.; Langyan, S.; Singh, M. Maize Carotenoid Composition and Biofortification for Provitamin A Activity. In Maize: Nutrition Dynamics and Novel Uses; Chaudhary, D., Kumar, S., Langyan, S., Eds.; Springer: New Delhi, India, 2014; pp. 83–91. [Google Scholar]
- Babu, R.; Palacios-Rojas, N.; Gao, S.; Yan, J.; Pixley, K. Validation of the effects of molecular marker polymorphisms in lcyE and crtRB1 on provitamin A concentrations for 26 tropical maize populations. Appl. Genet. 2013, 126, 389–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Muthusamy, V.; Hossain, F.; Thirunavukkarasu, N.; Choudhary, M.; Saha, S.; Bhat, J.S.; Prasanna, B.M.; Gupta, H.S. Development of β-carotene rich maize hybrids through marker assisted introgression of β-carotene hydroxylase allele. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Aluru, M.; Xu, Y.; Guo, R.; Wang, Z.; Li, S.; White, W.; Wang, K.; Rodermel, S. Generation of transgenic maize with enhanced provitamin A content. J. Exp. Bot. 2008, 59, 3551–3562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Berman, J.; Zorrilla-López, U.; Sandmann, G.; Capell, T.; Christou, P.; Zhu, C. The silencing of carotenoid -hydroxylases by RNA interference in different maize genetic backgrounds increases the -carotene content of the endosperm. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18, 2515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhu, C.; Naqvi, S.; Breitenbach, J.; Sandmann, G.; Christou, P.; Capell, T. Combinatorial genetic transformation generates a library of metabolic phenotypes for the carotenoid pathway in maize. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 18232–18237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ye, X.; Al-Babili, S.; Klöti, A.; Zhang, J.; Lucca, P.; Beyer, P.; Potrykus, I. Engineering the provitamin A (-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm. Science 2000, 287, 303–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Datta, K.; Baisakh, N.; Oliva, N.; Torrizo, L.; Abrigo, E.; Tan, J.; Rai, M.; Rehana, S.; Al-Babili, S.; Beyer, P.; et al. Bioengineered ‘golden’ indica rice cultivars with beta-carotene metabolism in the endosperm with hygromycin and mannose selection systems. Plant Biotechnol. J. 2003, 1, 81–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hoa, T.T.; Al-Babili, S.; Schaub, P.; Potrykus, I.; Beyer, P. Golden Indica and Japonica rice lines amenable to deregulation. Plant Physiol. 2003, 133, 161–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Al-Babili, S.; Beyer, P. Golden Rice-five years on the road-five years to go? Trends Plant Sci. 2005, 10, 565–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Paine, J.A.; Shipton, C.A.; Chagger, S.; Howles, R.M.; Kennedy, M.J.; Vernon, G.; Wright, S.Y.; Hincliffe, E.; Adams, J.L.; Silverstone, A.L.; et al. Improving the nutritional value of Golden rice through increased pro-vitamin A content. Nat. Biotech. 2005, 23, 482–487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bai, C.; Capell, T.; Berman, J.; Medina, V.; Sandmann, G.; Christou, P.; Zhu, C. Bottlenecks in carotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation in rice endosperm are influenced by the precursor-product balance. Plant Biotechnol. J. 2016, 14, 195–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ko, M.R.; Song, M.H.; Kim, J.K.; Baek, S.A.; You, M.K.; Lim, S.H.; Ha, S.H. RNAi-mediated suppression of three carotenoid-cleavage dioxygenase genes, OsCCD1, 4a, and 4b, increases carotenoid content in rice. J. Exp. Bot. 2018, 69, 5105–5116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Che, P.; Zhao, Z.-Y.; Glassman, K.; Dolde, D.; Hu, T.X.; Jones, T.J.; Gruis, D.F.; Obukosia, S.; Wambugu, F.; Albertsena, M.C. Elevated vitamin E content improves all-trans β-carotene accumulation and stability in biofortified sorghum. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2013, 113, 11040–11045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mellado-Ortega, E.; Hornero-Méndez, D. Carotenoid evolution during short-storage period of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum conv. durum) and tritordeum (×Tritordeum Ascherson et Graebner) whole-grain flours. Food Chem. 2016, 192, 714–723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hidalgo, A.; Brandolini, A. Kinetics of carotenoids degradation during the storage of einkorn (Triticum monococcum L. ssp. monococcum) and bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ssp. aestivum) flours. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 11300–11305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farrington, W.H.H.; Warwick, M.J.; Shearer, G. Changes in the carotenoids and sterol fractions during the prolonged storage of wheat flour. J. Sci. Food Agric. 1981, 32, 948–950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Borrelli, G.M.; Troccoli, A.; Di Fonzo, N.; Fares, C. Durum wheat lipoxygenase activity and other quality parameters that affect pasta colour. Cereal Chem. 1999, 76, 335–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taha, S.A.; Sági, F. Relationships between chemical composition of durum wheat semolina and macaroni quality. II. Ash, carotenoid pigments, and oxidative enzymes. Cereal Res. Commun. 1987, 15, 123–129. [Google Scholar]
- Hidalgo, A.; Brandolini, A.; Pompei, C. Carotenoids evolution during pasta, bread and water biscuit preparation from wheat flours. Food Chem. 2010, 121, 746–751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leenhardt, F.; Lyan, B.; Rock, E.; Boussard, A.; Potus, J.; Chanliaud, E.; Remesy, C. Wheat lipoxigenase activity induces greater loss of carotenoids than vitamin E during breadmaking. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 1710–1715. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Paznocht, L.; Kotíková, Z.; Orsák, M.; Lachman, J.; Martinek, P. Carotenoid changes of colored-grain wheat flours during bun-making. Food Chem. 2019, 277, 725–734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Antognoni, F.; Mandrioli, R.; Potente, G.; Taneyo Saa, D.L.; Gianotti, A. Changes in carotenoids, phenolic acids and antioxidant capacity in bread wheat doughs fermented with different lactic acid bacteria strains. Food Chem. 2019, 292, 211–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ficco, D.B.; De Simone, V.; De Leonardis, A.M.; Giovanniello, V.; Del Nobile, M.A.; Padalino, L.; Lecce, L.; Borrelli, G.M.; De Vita, P. Use of purple durum wheat to produce naturally functional fresh and dry pasta. Food Chem. 2016, 205, 187–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Trono, D.; Pastore, D.; Di Fonzo, N. Carotenoid dependent inhibition of durum wheat lipoxygenase. J. Cereal Sci. 1999, 29, 99–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Verlotta, A.; De Simone, V.; Mastrangelo, A.M.; Cattivelli, L.; Papa, R.; Trono, D. Insight into durum wheat Lpx-B1: A small gene family coding for the lipoxygenase responsible for carotenoid bleaching in mature grains. BMC Plant Biol. 2010, 10, 263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Randhawa, H.S.; Asif, M.; Pozniak, C.; Clarke, J.M.; Graf, R.J.; Fox, S.L.; Humphreys, D.G.; Knox, R.E.; DePauw, R.M.; Singh, A.K.; et al. Application of molecular markers to wheat breeding in Canada. Plant Breed. 2013, 132, 458–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dreisigacker, S.; Sehgal, D.; Reyes Jaimez, A.E.; Luna Garrido, B.; Muñoz Zavala, S.; Núñez Ríos, C.; Mollins, J.; Mall, S. Laboratory Protocols and Applications to Wheat Breeding, version 1; CIMMYT: Mexico City, Mexico, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Wurtzel, E.T. Genomics, genetics, and biochemistry of maize carotenoid biosynthesis. Recent Adv. Phytochem. 2014, 38, 85–110. [Google Scholar]
- Pixley, K.; Palacios, N.; Babu, R.; Mutale, R.; Surles, R.; Simpungwe, E. Biofortification of Maize with Provitamin A Carotenoids. In Carotenoids and Human Health; Tanumihardjo, S.A., Ed.; Humana Press Inc.: Totowa, NJ, USA, 2013; pp. 271–292. [Google Scholar]
- Simpungwe, E.; Dhliwayo, T.; Palenberg, M.; Taleon, V.; Birol, E.; Oparinde, A.; Saltzman, A.; Diressie, M.T. Orange maize in Zambia: Crop development and delivery experience. Afr. J. Food Ag. Nutr. Dev. 2017, 17, 11973–11999. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burt, A.J.; Grainger, C.M.; Young, J.C.; Shelp, B.J.; Lee, E.A. Impact of postharvest handling on carotenoid concentration and composition in high-carotenoid maize (Zea mays L.) kernels. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 8286–8292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ortiz, D.; Rocheford, T.; Ferruzzi, M.G. Influence of temperature and humidity on the stability of carotenoids in biofortified maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes during controlled post-harvest storage. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2016, 64, 2727–2736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Eckhoff, S.R.; Paulsen, M.R. Maize. In Cereal Grain Quality; Henry, R.J., Kettlewell, P.S., Eds.; Chapman and Hall Publishers: London, UK, 1996; pp. 77–112. [Google Scholar]
- Taleon, V.; Mugode, L.; Cabrera-Soto, L.; Palacios-Rojas, N. Carotenoid retention in biofortified maize using different post-harvest storage and packaging methods. Food Chem. 2017, 232, 60–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sowa, M.; Yu, J.; Palacios-Rojas, N.; Goltz, S.R.; Howe, J.A.; Davis, C.R.; Rocheford, T.; Tanumihardjo, S.A. Retention of carotenoids in biofortified maize flour and β-cryptoxanthin-enhanced eggs after household cooking. ACS Omega 2017, 2, 7320–7328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Junpatiw, A.; Lertrat, K.; Lomthaisong, K.; Tangwongchai, R. Effects of steaming, boiling and frozen storage on carotenoid contents of various sweet corn cultivars. Int. Food Res. J. 2013, 20, 2219–2225. [Google Scholar]
- Dewanto, V.; Wu, X.; Liu, R.H. Processed sweet corn has higher antioxidant activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 4959–4964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muzhingi, T.; Yeum, K.J.; Russell, R.M.; Johnson, E.J.; Qin, J.; Tang, G. Determination of carotenoids in yellow maize, the effects of saponification and food preparations. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 2008, 78, 112–120. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Scott, C.E.; Eldridge, A.L. Comparison of carotenoid content in fresh, frozen and canned corn. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2005, 18, 551–559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, S.; Tayie, F.A.K.; Young, M.F.; Rocheford, T.; White, W.S. Retention of provitamin A carotenoids in high ß-carotene maize (Zea mays) during traditional African household processing. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55, 10744–10750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lozano-Alejo, N.; Carrillo, G.V.; Pixley, K.; Palacios-Rojas, N. Physical properties and carotenoid content of maize kernels and its nixtamalized snacks. Inn. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2007, 8, 385–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cueto, M.; Farroni, A.; Schoenlechner, R.; Schleining, G.; Buera, P. Carotenoid and color changes in traditionally flaked and extruded products. Food Chem. 2017, 229, 640–645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ortiz, D.; Ponrajan, A.; Bonnet, J.P.; Rocheford, T.; Ferruzzi, M.G. Carotenoid stability during dry milling, storage, and extrusion processing of biofortified maize genotypes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2018, 66, 4683–4691. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Datta, K.; Rai, M.; Parkhi, V.; Oliva, N.; Tan, J.; Datta, S.K. Improved ‘golden’ indica rice and transgeneration enhancement of metabolic target products of carotenoids (-carotene) in transgenic elite (IR64 and BR29) indica ‘golden’ rice. Curr. Sci. 2006, 91, 935–939. [Google Scholar]
- Parkhi, V.; Rai, M.; Tan, J.; Oliva, N.; Rehana, S.; Bandyopadhyay, A.; Torrizo, L.; Ghole, V.; Datta, K.; Datta, S.K. Molecular characterization of marker free transgenic indica rice lines that accumulate carotenoids in seed endosperm. Mol. Gen. Genom. 2005, 274, 325–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ha, S.H.; Kim, J.K.; Jeong, Y.S.; You, M.K.; Lim, S.H.; Kim, J.K. Stepwise pathway engineering to the biosynthesis of zeaxanthin, astaxanthin and capsanthin in rice endosperm. Metab. Eng. 2019, 52, 178–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhu, Q.; Zeng, D.; Yu, S.; Cui, C.; Li, J.; Li, H.; Chen, J.; Zhang, R.; Zhao, X.; Chen, L.; et al. From golden rice to aSTARice: Bioengineering astaxanthin biosynthesis in rice endosperm. Mol. Plant 2018, 11, 1440–1448. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- PATH. Ultra Rice Technology Research Summary Table. August 2013. Available online: https://path.azureedge.net/media/documents/TS_update_ultra_rice.pdf (accessed on 25 September 2019).
- Bollinedi, H.; Dhakane-Lad, J.; Gopala Krishnan, S.; Bhowmick, P.K.; Prabhu, K.V.; Singh, N.K.; Singh, A.K. Kinetics of β-carotene degradation under different storage conditions in transgenic Golden Rice® lines. Food Chem. 2019, 278, 773–779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gayen, D.; Ali, N.; Sarkar, S.N.; Datta, S.K.; Datta, K. Down-regulation of lipoxygenase gene reduces degradation of carotenoids of golden rice during storage. Planta 2015, 242, 353–363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kuong, K.; Laillou, A.; Chea, C.; Chamnan, C.; Berger, J.; Wieringa, F.T. Stability of vitamin A, iron and zinc in fortified rice during storage and its impact on future national standards and programs-case study in Cambodia. Nutrients 2016, 8, 51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lee, J.; Hamer, M.L.; Eitenmiller, R.R. Stability of retinyl palmitate during cooking and storage in rice fortified with Ultra Rice fortification technology. J. Food Sci. 2000, 65, 915–919. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Y.O.; Lam, J.; Diosady, L.L.; Jankowski, S. Antioxidant system for the preservation of vitamin A in Ultra Rice. Food Nutr. Bull. 2009, 30, 82–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pinkaew, S.; Wegmuller, R.; Hurrell, R. Vitamin A stability in triple fortified extruded, artificial rice grains containing iron, zinc and vitamin A. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2012, 47, 2212–2220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wieringa, F.T.; Laillou, A.; Guyondet, C.; Jallier, V.; Moench-Pfanner, R.; Berger, J. Stability and retention of micronutrients in fortified rice prepared using different cooking methods. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2014, 1324, 40–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Taylor, J.R.N. Overview: Importance of sorghum in Africa. In Proceedings of the Afripro, Workshop on the Proteins of Sorghum and Millets: Enhancing Nutritional and Functional Properties for Africa, Pretoria, South Africa, 2–4 April 2003; Belton, P.S., Taylor, J.P.N., Eds.; Available online: http://www.afripro.org.uk (accessed on 21 October 2019).
- Bean, S.R.; Wilson, J.D.; Moreau, R.A.; Galant, A.; Awika, J.M.; Kaufman, R.C.; Adrianos, S.L.; Ioerger, B.P. Structure and composition of the sorghum grain. In Sorghum: State of the Art and Future Perspectives; Ciampitti, I., Prasad, V., Eds.; American Society of Agronomy and the Crop Science Society of America Inc.: Madison, WI, USA, 2016; Volume 58. [Google Scholar]
- Salas Fernandez, M.; Kapran, I.; Souley, S.; Abdou, M.; Maiga, I.; Acharya, C.; Hamblin, M.T.; Kresovich, S. Collection and characterization of yellow endosperm sorghums from West Africa for biofortification. Genet. Resour. Crop. Evol. 2009, 56, 991–1000. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salas Fernandez, M.G.; Hamblin, M.; Li, L.; Rooney, W.L.; Tuinstra, M.R.; Kresovich, S. Quantitative trait loci analysis of endosperm color and carotenoid content in sorghum grain. Crop. Sci. 2008, 48, 1732–1743. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Reddy, J.; Erasmus, C.; Mlotshwa, L.; Taylor, J.; Dlamini, N.R. The effect of processing on β-carotene levels in sorghum. In Proceedings of the CSIR 3rd Biennial Conference, Pretoria, South Africa, 31 August–1 September 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Cahoon, E.B.; Hall, S.E.; Ripp, K.G.; Ganzke, T.S.; Hitz, W.D.; Coughlan, S.J. Metabolic redesign of vitamin E biosynthesis in plants for tocotrienol production and increased antioxidant content. Nat. Biotechnol. 2003, 21, 1082–1087. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lavelli, V.; Hidalgo, A.; Pompei, C.; Brandolini, A. Radical scavenging activity of einkorn (Triticum monococcum L. subsp. monococcum) wholemeal flour and its relationship to soluble phenolic and lipophilic antioxidant content. J. Cereal Sci. 2009, 49, 319–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cardoso, L.d.M.; Montini, T.A.; Pinheiro, S.S.; Queiroz, V.A.V.; Pinheiro Sant’Ana, H.M.; Martino, H.S.D.; Moreira, A.V.B. Effects of processing with dry heat and wet heat on the antioxidant profile of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.). Food Chem. 2014, 152, 201–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cardoso, L.d.M.; Pinheiro, S.S.; da Silva, L.L.; de Menezes, C.B.; de Carvalho, C.W.; Tardin, F.D.; Queiroz, V.A.; Martino, H.S.; Pinheiro-Sant’Ana, H.M. Tocochromanols and carotenoids in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.): Diversity and stability to the heat treatment. Food Chem. 2015, 172, 900–908. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Afify, A.M.R.; El-Beltagi, H.S.; El-Salam, S.M.; Omran, A.A. Biochemical changes in phenols, flavonoids, tannins, vitamin E, β-carotene and antioxidant activity during soaking of three white sorghum varieties. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2012, 2, 203–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lipkie, T.E.; De Moura, F.F.; Zhao, Z.-Y.; Albertsen, M.C.; Che, P.; Glassman, K. Bioaccessibility of Carotenoids from transgenic provitamin A biofortified sorghum. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013, 61, 5764–5771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Species | Fortification Strategy | Total Carotenoids (µg/g) | Lutein (µg/g) | Zeaxanthin (µg/g) | Provitamin A Carotenoids | Refs. | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β-Carotene (µg/g) | α-Carotene (µg/g) | β-Cryptoxanthin(µg/g) | |||||||
Durum wheat | Traditional breeding | 1.178–4.416 | 0.721–3.078 | 0.088–0.184 | 0.007–0.033 | 0.003–0.029 | 0.002–0.014 | [26] | |
MAS | 5.00–7.70 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | [32] | ||
Bread wheat | Traditional breeding | 0.603–1.940 | 0.391–1.890 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | [27,28,29,30] | |
Translocation lines | 1.133–1.215 | 0.897–1.020 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | [30] | ||
Transgenesis | ZmPSY+PaCRTI | 2.31–4.96 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | [37] | |
PaCRTB+PaCRTI | 3.21–4.76 | 0.29–0.36 | 0.38–0.53 | 2.14–3.21 | 0.19–0.34 | 0.18–0.29 | [38] | ||
HYD-RNAi+PaCRTB | 8.28–9.31 | 1.65–1.97 | 0.42–0.69 | 3.98–5.04 | 0.22–0.37 | 0.12–0.25 | [39] | ||
Maize | Traditional breeding | 9.55–62.96 | 1.23–23.93 | 1.44–32.40 | 0.31–3.27 | 0.45–2.65 | 0.13–5.17 | [44,45] | |
MAS | n.d. | 3.3–25.7 | 0.7–44.7 | 1.6–26.0 | n.d. | 3.6–13.0 | [46] | ||
n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | 1.9–21.7 | n.d. | n.d. | [47] | |||
Transgenesis | PaCRTB+PaCRTI | 16–47 | 2.93–6.68 | 3.41–6.21 | 2.98–8.64 | 0.28–4.65 | 0.26-0.74 | [48] | |
RNAi-ZmBCH2 | 68–106 | 7–23 | 13–19 | 21–30 | n.d. | 3–11 | [49] | ||
ZmPSY+PaCRTI | up to 156.14 | up to 9.76 | up to 25.36 | up to 57.35 | up to 6.10 | up to 5.97 | [50] | ||
Rice | Traditional breeding | n.d. | 0.036–0.109 | 0.014–0.037 | 0.066-0.150 | n.d. | n.d. | [14] | |
Transgenesis | NpPSY+PaCRTI (Golden Rice) | up to 1.6 | n.d. | n.d. | up to 0.7 | n.d. | n.d. | [51,52,53] | |
NpPSY+PaCRTI (Golden Rice-1) | up to 6.0 | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | n.d. | [54] | ||
ZmPSY+PaCRTI (Golden Rice 2) | 36.7 | n.d. | n.d. | 30.9 | 4.8 | 0.4 | [55] | ||
ZmPSY+PaCRTI | 4.61–5.51 | 0.16–0.26 | 0.03–0.17 | 1.17–2.15 | 0.70–1.90 | 0.00–0.17 | [56] | ||
ZmPSY+PaCRTI+AtDXS | 17.79–31.78 | 0.26–0.69 | 0.13–0.33 | 7.50–16.61 | 3.60–9.70 | 0.39–0.41 | [56] | ||
ZmPSY+PaCRTI+AtOR | 11.53–25.83 | 0.55–1.73 | 0.23–0.57 | 5.87–10.52 | 3.20–9.70 | 0.19–1.13 | [56] | ||
OsCCD-RNAi | 1.43–3.58 | 0.22–0.58 | 0.06–0.11 | 0.76–2.04 | 0.14–0.61 | 0.16–0.32 | [57] | ||
Sorghum | Traditional breeding | 3.82–19.50 | 0.28–4.05 | 0.45–6.97 | 2.23–6.02 | n.d. | 0.70–3.93 | [13] | |
Transgenesis | ZmPSY+PaCRTI+AtDXS | n.d. | 6.94–12.01 | 3.61–5.43 | 2.5–9.1 | n.d. | n.d. | [58] | |
ZmPSY+PaCRTI+AtDXS+HGGT | n.d. | 9.32–11.46 | 4.04–5.95 | 7.3–12.3 | n.d. | n.d. | [58] | ||
n.d.: not determined |
© 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Trono, D. Carotenoids in Cereal Food Crops: Composition and Retention throughout Grain Storage and Food Processing. Plants 2019, 8, 551. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8120551
Trono D. Carotenoids in Cereal Food Crops: Composition and Retention throughout Grain Storage and Food Processing. Plants. 2019; 8(12):551. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8120551
Chicago/Turabian StyleTrono, Daniela. 2019. "Carotenoids in Cereal Food Crops: Composition and Retention throughout Grain Storage and Food Processing" Plants 8, no. 12: 551. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8120551