Diagnosis of Hymenoptera Venom Allergy: State of the Art, Challenges, and Perspectives
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Hymenoptera
1.2. Hymenoptera Venoms
- Api m 1 is the phospholipase A2—the major allergen of honeybee venom. Phospholipase A2 is also contained in Bombus spp. venoms (Bom p 1 and Bom t 1), but the protein sequence identities between Apis mellifera and Bombus spp. is approximately 52–53%. Venoms of wasps contain phospholipase A1—Ves v 1 and Pol d 1, which differs in sequence and substrate specificity.
- Api m 2—hyaluronidase, the second major allergen of bee venom. Due to the similarity structure of bee hyaluronidase and wasp hyaluronidase, this allergen is the main cause of cross-reactions of IgE antibodies against the venom of these insects. Wasp hyaluronidase exists in 2 isoforms—Ves v 2.0101 and Ves v 2.0201.
- Api m 3—acid phosphatase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of monoesters and anhydrides of phosphoric acid. Together with the Api m 1 and Api m 2, it is considered as one of the most potent venom allergens.
- Api m 4—melittin is a minor allergen but the main component of bee venom, accounting for about half (45–50%) of its dry weight. Melittin possesses strong hemolytic and antimicrobial properties. Api m 3 and Api m 4 have been identified only in bee venom so far.
- Api m 5—dipeptidyl peptidase-IV and its analogues (Ves v 3 and Pol d 3) are present in wasp venom and the European paper wasp venom. Ves v 3 and Pol d 3 are major allergens that show high cross-reactivity.
- Antigen 5—an allergen found in the venom of almost all Vespoidea insects; Ves v 5 is found in the venom of yellow jackets; and Pol d 5 is found in the venom of paper wasps. Its function is still unknown. However, it is known to be highly allergenic and responsible for cross-reactions. Antigen 5 is a key element in CRD (component-resolved diagnostics) to distinguish between bee and wasp venom allergy [25].
- Api m 6—putative protease inhibitor. It stands for only 1–2% of venom’s dry weight and is considered one of the weakest bee venom allergens.
- Api m 7—CUB (Clr/Cls, urchin EGF-like protein and bone morphogenic protein 1) serine protease, which shows high IgE-binding activity.
- Api m 8—carboxylesterase-6. Bee venom contains less than 1% of this allergen, and its function is not yet fully elucidated.
- Api m 9—venom serine carboxypeptidase that belongs to the peptidase S10 family. There are no reports on the immunogenic properties of Api m 9.
- Api m 10—icarpin. This carbohydrate-rich protein is identified as a key allergen due to its importance not only in the diagnosis of bee venom allergy, but also in immunotherapy. VIT may be ineffective in patients allergic to Api m 10 due to being underrepresented in some therapeutic extracts [26].
- Api m 11—occurs in two isoforms: major royal jelly protein (MRJP) 8 (Api m 11.0101a), and MRJP9 (Api m 11.0201a). MRJPs are a family of proteins identified only in the Apis spp. These proteins constitute about 90% of all royal jelly (RJ) proteins. Human IgE antibodies recognize MRJP1 present in the sera of patients allergic to RJ, as well as to bee venom.
- Api m 12—vitellogenin, 200 kDa peptide belonging to the vitellogenin family and cross-reactive to Ves v 6.
- Ves v 1 and Pol d 1—phospholipase A1, a peptide with hemolytic activity.
- Ves v 2 and Pol d 2—hyaluronidase (in Vespinae isoforms Ves v 2.0101, Ves v 2.0201 exist) hydrolyzes hyaluronic acid. This may cause a pathogenic reaction in allergic patients.
- Ves v 3 and Pol d 3—dipeptidyl peptidase-IV, peptides with high cross-reactivity, resulting from 76.1% sequence identity. Their function is activating or inactivating substrates by cleaving dipeptides.
- Ves v 5 and Pol d 5—antigen 5, considered the most important wasp allergen, but its function is still unknown.
- Ves v 6—vitellogenin, considered an IgE sensitizer.
2. Diagnosis of Hymenoptera Venom Allergy
- rApi m 1, rApi m 2, rApi m 3, rApi m 5, rApi m 10;
- rVes v 1, rVes v 5;
- rPol d 5.
3. Additional Tests
4. Searching for New Diagnostic Capabilities of Hymenoptera Venom Allergy
5. Diagnostic Challenge—Carbohydrate Determinants as the Cause of Cross-Reactivity in Patients Allergic to Hymenoptera Venom
6. Concluding Remarks
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Matysiak, J.; Matuszewska, E.; Packi, K.; Klupczyńska-Gabryszak, A. Diagnosis of Hymenoptera Venom Allergy: State of the Art, Challenges, and Perspectives. Biomedicines 2022, 10, 2170. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10092170
Matysiak J, Matuszewska E, Packi K, Klupczyńska-Gabryszak A. Diagnosis of Hymenoptera Venom Allergy: State of the Art, Challenges, and Perspectives. Biomedicines. 2022; 10(9):2170. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10092170
Chicago/Turabian StyleMatysiak, Joanna, Eliza Matuszewska, Kacper Packi, and Agnieszka Klupczyńska-Gabryszak. 2022. "Diagnosis of Hymenoptera Venom Allergy: State of the Art, Challenges, and Perspectives" Biomedicines 10, no. 9: 2170. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10092170
APA StyleMatysiak, J., Matuszewska, E., Packi, K., & Klupczyńska-Gabryszak, A. (2022). Diagnosis of Hymenoptera Venom Allergy: State of the Art, Challenges, and Perspectives. Biomedicines, 10(9), 2170. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10092170