Mothers’ Adverse Childhood Experiences Moderate the Association between Maternal Anger and Children’s Externalizing Symptoms
Abstract
:1. Introduction
The Moderating Role of Maternal Adverse Childhood Experiences
2. Method
2.1. Participants
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Mother’s Anger
2.2.2. Mother’s Adverse Childhood Experiences
2.2.3. Child Externalizing Symptoms
2.2.4. Intimate Partner Violence
2.3. Procedures
2.4. Analytic Strategy
3. Results
4. Discussion
Clinical Implications
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- DiGiuseppe, R.; Tafrate, R.C. Understanding Anger Disorders; Oxford University Press: Oxford, NY, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Miceli, M.; Castelfranchi, C. Anger and Its Cousins. Emot. Rev. 2019, 11, 13–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fernandez, E.; Callen, A.; Johnson, S.L.; Gaspar, C.; Kulhanek, C.; Jose-Bueno, C. Prevalence, Elicitors, and Expression of Anger in 21st Century Mass Shootings. Aggress. Violent Behav. 2020, 55, 101483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gröndal, M.; Ask, K.; Winblad, S. The Distinction between Irritability and Anger and Their Associations with Impulsivity and Subjective Wellbeing. Sci. Rep. 2023, 13, 10398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Barclay, L.J.; Kiefer, T. In the Aftermath of Unfair Events: Understanding the Differential Effects of Anxiety and Anger. J. Manag. 2019, 45, 1802–1829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steffgen, S.T.; Otterpohl, N.; Wessing, F.; Schwinger, M.; Assor, A.; Kanat-Maymon, Y.; Gueta, B.E.; Stiensmeier-Pelster, J. The Process Linking Child-Invested Contingent Self-Esteem and Conditional Regard: The Roles of Maternal Anger and Its Regulation. J. Child Fam. Stud. 2022, 31, 2412–2423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Di Giunta, L.; Rothenberg, W.A.; Lunetti, C.; Lansford, J.E.; Pastorelli, C.; Eisenberg, N.; Thartori, E.; Basili, E.; Favini, A.; Yotanyamaneewong, S.; et al. Longitudinal Associations between Mothers’ and Fathers’ Anger/Irritability Expressiveness, Harsh Parenting, and Adolescents’ Socioemotional Functioning in Nine Countries. Dev. Psychol. 2020, 56, 458–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hooper, E.G.; Wu, Q.; Ku, S.; Gerhardt, M.; Feng, X. Maternal Emotion Socialization and Child Outcomes among African Americans and European Americans. J. Child Fam. Stud. 2018, 27, 1870–1880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thaw, A.; Herba, C.M.; Orri, M.; Paquin, S.; Séguin, J.R.; Berthoz, S.; Kim-Cohen, J.; Tremblay, R.E.; Côté, S. Parental Affective Personality and Children’s Self-Reported Internalising and Externalising Behaviour. Soc. Dev. 2022, 31, 1001–1019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eisenberg, N.; Cumberland, A.; Spinrad, T.L. Parental Socialization of Emotion. Psychol. Inq. 1998, 9, 241–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eisenberg, N.; Hernández, M.M.; Spinrad, T.L. The Relation of Self-Regulation to Children’s Externalizing and Internalizing Problems. In Emotion Regulation and Psychopathology in Children and Adolescents; Essau, C.A., Leblanc, S., Ollendick, T.H., Essau, C.A., LeBlanc, S.S., Ollendick, T.H., Eds.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, NY, USA, 2017; pp. 18–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spinrad, T.L.; Xu, X.; Eisenberg, N.; Dunbar, A.; Lozada, F. Parenting, Socialization of Emotion, and the Development of Coping. In The Cambridge Handbook of the Development of Coping; Skinner, E.A., Zimmer-Gembeck, M.J., Eds.; Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2023; pp. 447–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Havighurst, S.; Kehoe, C. The Role of Parental Emotion Regulation in Parent Emotion Socialization: Implications for Intervention. In Parental Stress and Early Child Development: Adaptive and Maladaptive Outcomes; Deater-Deckard, K., Panneton, R., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 285–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hajal, N.J.; Paley, B. Parental Emotion and Emotion Regulation: A Critical Target of Study for Research and Intervention to Promote Child Emotion Socialization. Dev. Psychol. 2020, 56, 403–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bariola, E.; Gullone, E.; Hughes, E.K. Child and Adolescent Emotion Regulation: The Role of Parental Emotion Regulation and Expression. Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev. 2011, 14, 198–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Briscoe, C.; Stack, D.M.; Dickson, D.J.; Serbin, L.A. Maternal Emotion Socialization Mediates the Relationship between Maternal and Adolescent Negative Emotionality. J. Youth Adolesc. 2019, 48, 495–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Godovich, S.A.; Adelsberg, S.; Roy, A.K. Parental Responses to Temper Outbursts in Children With ADHD: The Role of Psychological Factors. J. Atten. Disord. 2020, 24, 2054–2063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sorcher, L.K.; Goldstein, B.L.; Finsaas, M.C.; Carlson, G.A.; Klein, D.N.; Dougherty, L.R. Preschool Irritability Predicts Adolescent Psychopathology and Functional Impairment: A 12-Year Prospective Study. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2022, 61, 554–564.e1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Binion, G.; Zalewski, M. Maternal Emotion Dysregulation and the Functional Organization of Preschoolers’ Emotional Expressions and Regulatory Behaviors. Emotion 2018, 18, 386–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Leibenluft, E.; Stoddard, J. The Developmental Psychopathology of Irritability. Dev. Psychopathol. 2013, 25 Pt 2, 1473–1487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Plickert, G.; Pals, H. Parental Anger and Trajectories of Emotional Well-Being from Adolescence to Young Adulthood. J. Res. Adolesc. 2020, 30, 440–457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yaros, A.; Lochman, J.E.; Wells, K. Parental Aggression as a Predictor of Boys’ Hostile Attribution across the Transition to Middle School. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 2016, 40, 452–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Rest, M.M.; Van Nieuwenhuijzen, M.; Kupersmidt, J.B.; Vriens, A.; Schuengel, C.; Matthys, W. Accidental and Ambiguous Situations Reveal Specific Social Information Processing Biases and Deficits in Adolescents with Low Intellectual Level and Clinical Levels of Externalizing Behavior. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2020, 48, 1411–1424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Song, J.-H.; Colasante, T.; Malti, T. Taming Anger and Trusting Others: Roles of Skin Conductance, Anger Regulation, and Trust in Children’s Aggression. Br. J. Dev. Psychol. 2020, 38, 42–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hitti, S.A.; Sullivan, T.N.; McDonald, S.E.; Farrell, A.D. Longitudinal Relations between Beliefs Supporting Aggression and Externalizing Outcomes: Indirect Effects of Anger Dysregulation and Callous-Unemotional Traits. Aggress. Behav. 2019, 45, 93–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Otterpohl, N.; Wild, E.; Havighurst, S.S.; Stiensmeier-Pelster, J.; Kehoe, C.E. The Interplay of Parental Response to Anger, Adolescent Anger Regulation, and Externalizing and Internalizing Problems: A Longitudinal Study. Res. Child Adolesc. Psychopathol. 2022, 50, 225–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Snyder, J.; Stoolmiller, M.; Wilson, M.; Yamamoto, M. Child Anger Regulation, Parental Responses to Children’s Anger Displays, and Early Child Antisocial Behavior. Soc. Dev. 2003, 12, 335–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spencer, C.M.; Keilholtz, B.M.; Palmer, M.; Vail, S.L. Mental and Physical Health Correlates for Emotional Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration and Victimization: A Meta-Analysis. Trauma Violence Abuse 2024, 25, 41–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chiesa, A.E.; Kallechey, L.; Harlaar, N.; Rashaan Ford, C.; Garrido, E.F.; Betts, W.R.; Maguire, S. Intimate Partner Violence Victimization and Parenting: A Systematic Review. Child Abuse Negl. 2018, 80, 285–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fong, V.C.; Hawes, D.; Allen, J.L. A Systematic Review of Risk and Protective Factors for Externalizing Problems in Children Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence. Trauma Violence Abuse 2019, 20, 149–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Benson, P.R. Maternal Mental Health and the Behavior of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Unidirectional and Bidirectional Effects. Res. Autism Spectr. Disord. 2023, 103, 102133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Denham, S.A.; Workman, E.; Cole, P.M.; Weissbrod, C.; Kendziora, K.T.; Zahn–Waxler, C. Prediction of Externalizing Behavior Problems from Early to Middle Childhood: The Role of Parental Socialization and Emotion Expression. Dev. Psychopathol. 2000, 12, 23–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hofer, C.; Eisenberg, N.; Spinrad, T.L.; Morris, A.S.; Gershoff, E.; Valiente, C.; Kupfer, A.; Eggum, N.D. Mother–Adolescent Conflict: Stability, Change, and Relations with Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior Problems. Soc. Dev. 2013, 22, 259–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, X.; Biaggi, A.; Sacchi, C.; Lawrence, A.J.; Chen, P.-J.; Pollard, R.; Matter, M.; Mackes, N.; Hazelgrove, K.; Morgan, C.; et al. Mediators and Moderators in the Relationship between Maternal Childhood Adversity and Children’s Emotional and Behavioural Development: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Psychol. Med. 2022, 52, 1817–1837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, J.; Exner-Cortens, D.; Dobson, K.; Wells, L.; Noel, M.; Madigan, S. Adverse Childhood Experiences and Intimate Partner Violence: A Meta-Analysis. Dev. Psychopathol. 2023, 36, 929–943. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kubiak, S.; Fedock, G.; Kim, W.J.; Bybee, D. Examining Perpetration of Physical Violence by Women: The Influence of Childhood Adversity, Victimization, Mental Illness, Substance Abuse, and Anger. Violence Vict. 2017, 32, 22–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hammen, C.; Henry, R.; Daley, S.E. Depression and Sensitization to Stressors among Young Women as a Function of Childhood Adversity. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2000, 68, 782–787. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stroud, C.B. The Stress Sensitization Model. In The Oxford Handbook of Stress and Mental Health; Harkness, K.L., Hayden, E.P., Eds.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, NY, USA, 2020; pp. 349–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, R.T. A Developmentally Informed Perspective on the Relation between Stress and Psychopathology: When the Problem with Stress Is That There Is Not Enough. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2015, 124, 80–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rutter, M. Resilience in the Face of Adversity: Protective Factors and Resistance to Psychiatric Disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 1985, 147, 598–611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rutter, M. Resilience as a Dynamic Concept. Dev. Psychopathol. 2012, 24, 335–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Arbel, R.; Margolin, G.; O’Connor, S.G.; Mason, T.B.; Leventhal, A.M.; Dunton, G.F. The Curvilinear Effect of Mothers’ Parenting Stress and Attunement on Children’s Internalizing Symptoms: A Six Wave Study of Mother–Youth Dyads across the Transition to Adolescence. Dev. Psychol. 2020, 56, 1316–1330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Atkinson, L.; Beitchman, J.; Gonzalez, A.; Young, A.; Wilson, B.; Escobar, M.; Chisholm, V.; Brownlie, E.; Khoury, J.E.; Ludmer, J.; et al. Cumulative Risk, Cumulative Outcome: A 20-Year Longitudinal Study. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0127650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lamela, D.; Figueiredo, B. Childhood Physical Maltreatment with Physical Injuries Is Associated with Higher Adult Psychopathology Symptoms. Eur. Psychiatry 2018, 53, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Putnam, K.T.; Harris, W.W.; Putnam, F.W. Synergistic Childhood Adversities and Complex Adult Psychopathology. J. Trauma. Stress 2013, 26, 435–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Davies, P.T.; Thompson, M.J.; Hentges, R.F.; Parry, L.Q.; Sturge-Apple, M.L. Interparental Conflict as a Quadratic Predictor of Children’s Reactivity to Interparental Conflict and School Adjustment: Steeling Effects or Risk Saturation? Child Dev. 2022, 93, 594–611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rinne, G.R.; Mahrer, N.E.; Guardino, C.M.; Shalowitz, M.U.; Ramey, S.L.; Dunkel Schetter, C. Childhood Family Stress Modifies the Association between Perinatal Stressful Life Events and Depressive Symptoms. J. Fam. Psychol. 2023, 37, 432–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Derogatis, L.R.; Melisaratos, N. The Brief Symptom Inventory: An Introductory Report. Psychol. Med. 1983, 13, 595–605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dillon, K.H.; Van Voorhees, E.E.; Dennis, P.A.; Glenn, J.J.; Wilks, C.R.; Morland, L.A.; Beckham, J.C.; Elbogen, E.B. Anger Mediates the Relationship between Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Suicidal Ideation in Veterans. J. Affect. Disord. 2020, 269, 117–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ford, J.D.; Grasso, D.J.; Greene, C.A.; Slivinsky, M.; DeViva, J.C. Randomized Clinical Trial Pilot Study of Prolonged Exposure versus Present Centred Affect Regulation Therapy for PTSD and Anger Problems with Male Military Combat Veterans. Clin. Psychol. Psychother. 2018, 25, 641–649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Canavarro, C. Inventário de Sintomas Psicopatológicos (BSI). In Testes e Provas Psicológicas em Portugal; Associação dos Psicólogos Portugueses: Braga, Portugal, 1999; pp. 95–109. [Google Scholar]
- Felitti, V.J.; Anda, R.F.; Nordenberg, D.; Williamson, D.F.; Spitz, A.M.; Edwards, V.; Koss, M.P.; Marks, J.S. Relationship of Childhood Abuse and Household Dysfunction to Many of the Leading Causes of Death in Adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. Am. J. Prev. Med. 1998, 14, 245–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goodman, R. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A Research Note. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 1997, 38, 581–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ferreira, T.; Geiser, C.; Cadima, J.; Matias, M.; Leal, T.; Mena Matos, P. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: An Examination of Factorial, Convergent, and Discriminant Validity Using Multitrait-Multirater Data. Psychol. Assess. 2021, 33, 45–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Straus, M.; Sherry, A.; Boney-McCoy, S.; Sugarman, D. The Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2): Development and Preliminary Psychometric Data. J. Fam. Issues 1996, 17, 283–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paiva, C.; Figueiredo, B. Versão Portuguesa das “Escalas de Táticas de Conflito Revisadas”: Estudo de Validação. Rev. Psicol. Teor. Prát. 2006, 8, 14–39. [Google Scholar]
- Fanti, K.A.; Lordos, A. Parental Antisocial and Psychopathic Traits Influence Adolescent Psychopathology. Int. J. Offender Ther. Comp. Criminol. 2022, 66, 1550–1574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Garon-Carrier, G.; Pascuzzo, K.; Gaudreau, W.; Lemelin, J.-P.; Déry, M. Maternal Functioning and Child’s Externalizing Problems: Temperament and Sex-Based Driven Effects. Front. Psychol. 2022, 13, 874733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goelman, H.; Zdaniuk, B.; Boyce, W.T.; Armstrong, J.M.; Essex, M.J. Maternal Mental Health, Child Care Quality, and Children’s Behavior. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 2014, 35, 347–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rijlaarsdam, J.; Stevens, G.W.J.M.; Jansen, P.W.; Ringoot, A.P.; Jaddoe, V.W.V.; Hofman, A.; Ayer, L.; Verhulst, F.C.; Hudziak, J.J.; Tiemeier, H. Maternal Childhood Maltreatment and Offspring Emotional and Behavioral Problems: Maternal and Paternal Mechanisms of Risk Transmission. Child Maltreat. 2014, 19, 67–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lamela, D.; Figueiredo, B. Post-Divorce Representations of Marital Negotiation during Marriage Predict Parenting Alliance in Newly Divorced Parents. Sex. Relatsh. Ther. 2011, 26, 182–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Magalhães, E.; Grych, J.; Ferreira, C.; Antunes, C.; Prioste, A.; Jongenelen, I. Interpersonal Violence and Mental Health Outcomes: Mediation by Self-Efficacy and Coping. Vict. Offenders 2022, 17, 182–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lamela, D.; Morais, A.; Jongenelen, I. Psychometric Validation of the Coparenting Relationship Scale in Portuguese Mothers; [Validação Psicométrica Da Escala Da Relação Coparental Em Mães Portuguesas]; [Validación Psicométrica de La Escala de La Relación Coparental En Madres Portuguesas]. Av. En Psicol. Latinoam. 2018, 36, 585–600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Laajasalo, T.; Cowley, L.E.; Otterman, G.; Lamela, D.; Rodrigues, L.B.; Jud, A.; Kemp, A.; Naughton, A.; Hurt, L.; Soldino, V.; et al. Current Issues and Challenges in the Definition and Operationalization of Child Maltreatment: A Scoping Review. Child Abus. Negl. 2023, 140, 106187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
M (SD) | 1. | 2. | 3. | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1. Externalizing symptoms | 9.61 (4.13) | – | ||
2. Mothers’ anger | 7.32 (5.02) | 0.14 | – | |
3. Mothers’ ACEs | 4.61 (2.41) | 0.06 | 0.35 *** | – |
4. Intimate partner violence (IPV) | 23.39 (5.29) | 0.10 | 0.30 *** | 0.25 ** |
b | se | t | LLCI | ULCI | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mothers’ anger | 0.15 | 0.07 | 2.07 * | 0.0071 | 0.2958 |
Mothers’ ACEs | −0.06 | 0.15 | −0.39 | −0.3545 | 0.2358 |
Mothers’ anger × Mothers’ ACEs | −0.10 | 0.03 | −3.27 *** | −0.1642 | −0.0406 |
Intimate partner violence (IPV) | −0.03 | 0.08 | −0.39 | −1.99 | 0.1323 |
Conditional effects Mothers’ ACE’s | b | se | t | LLCI | ULCI |
Low (−2.61) | 0.42 | 0.12 | 3.53 *** | 0.1841 | 6527 |
Moderate (0.39) | 0.11 | 0.07 | 1.54 | −0.0309 | 0.2534 |
High (2.39) | −0.09 | 0.09 | −0.98 | −0.2813 | 0.0944 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Castro, T.; Pasion, R.; Antunes, C.; Alves, F.; Jongenelen, I.; Lamela, D. Mothers’ Adverse Childhood Experiences Moderate the Association between Maternal Anger and Children’s Externalizing Symptoms. Children 2024, 11, 1002. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11081002
Castro T, Pasion R, Antunes C, Alves F, Jongenelen I, Lamela D. Mothers’ Adverse Childhood Experiences Moderate the Association between Maternal Anger and Children’s Externalizing Symptoms. Children. 2024; 11(8):1002. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11081002
Chicago/Turabian StyleCastro, Tiago, Rita Pasion, Carla Antunes, Francisca Alves, Inês Jongenelen, and Diogo Lamela. 2024. "Mothers’ Adverse Childhood Experiences Moderate the Association between Maternal Anger and Children’s Externalizing Symptoms" Children 11, no. 8: 1002. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11081002