Bio-Recovery of Metals through Biomining within Circularity-Based Solutions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Sources of Metals in the Environment and Their Toxicity
3. Raw Critical Material Recovery
3.1. Biomining as a New Aspect of Circularity in Waste Management
3.2. Current Status of Metal Recycling and Circularity
4. Biotechnologies Applied for Metal Recovery from Solid Matrices
4.1. Remediation versus Recovery
4.2. Microbial Consortia Involved in Biomining Process
4.2.1. Bioleaching by Bacteria
4.2.2. Bioleaching by Fungi
4.2.3. Bioleaching by Cyanogenic Microorganisms
5. Case Studies of Successful Microbial Applications in Metals Recovery
5.1. Reusing Bio-Recovered Metals in Circular Economy
5.2. Application of Biomining Process in Metal-Contaminated Soil/Sediment
5.3. Industrial-Scale Biomining Techniques
6. Multi-Objective Decision-Making Methods Exploited to Select Sustainable Biomining/Remediation
6.1. Sustainable Remediation
6.2. Application of Sustainability Assessment Tools in Biomining
7. Final Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Microbial Group | Solid Wastes | Metal Recovery (%) | Operating Conditions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bacteria | ||||
Mixed A. ferrooxidans with A. thiooxidans Mixed L. ferrooxidans with A. thiooxidans | Copper- Sulfide ore | Cu: 70% Cu: 35% | - 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing 5 g copper sulfide ore+ 90 mL medium + 10 mL bacterial inoculum; - Agitation: 170 rpm; - Temperature: 30 °C; - Time (days): 35; - pH = 2.3. | [94] |
Mixed acidophilic microorganisms Leptospirillum ferriphilum, Acidithiobacillus caldus, and Sulfobacillus acidophilus | Copper-containing electroplating sludge (CCES) | Cu: 84.3% | - 500 mL shake flasks containing 250 mL basalt medium + 50 mL of fresh mixed consortium with 15 g CCES; - Agitation: 180 rpm; - Temperature: 45 °C; - Time (days): 10; - pH = 1.8–2.38. | [96] |
Microbial consortium of Leptospirillum ferriphilum and Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidans | Printed circuit boards (PCBs) | Cu: 93.4% | - 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask with 10% inoculum, cultivated at the initial pH of 0.9, 42 °C, and 200 rpm with 5 g/L PCBs; - Time (days): 9; - Pulp density: 100 g/L. | [100] |
Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans isolated from native excess activated sludge (individual and mixed consortium) | Activated sludge | Mixed culture: 98.32% Cu and 98.60% Zn A. ferrooxidans: 95.98% of Cu and 96.49% of Zn A. thiooxidans: 95.87% of Cu and 96.83% of Zn. | - 500 mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing 200 mL distilled water with 5% (w/v) sludge and culture medium; - pH = 4 to 2 after 9 days; - Agitation: 150 rpm; - Time: 9 days; - Temperature: 30 °C; - A. ferrooxidans bioleaching system: 8.8 g FeSO4·7H2O and 10% (v/v) A. ferrooxidans; - A. thiooxidans bioleaching system, 2.0 g sulfur and 10% (v/v) A. thiooxidans; - Mixed culture of A. ferrooxidans and A. thiooxidans: 8.8 g FeSO4∙7H2O and 2.0 g S, together with 5% (v/v) A. ferrooxidans and 5% (v/v) A. thiooxidans. | [101] |
Mixed culture of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, Thiobacillus thiooxidans, and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans | Polymetallic concentrates | In all tested conditions, copper and zinc maximum extractions were above 95% within 48 h; Optimum leaching time: 50 h. | - Two stage bioleaching process: fermentor filled with ceramic rings as biofilm carriers, operated in batch mode, and inoculated with the substrate-adapted cultures; - Pulp solids density: 5–20%; - Initial iron concentration: 0–15 g/L; - pH = 1.9; - Temperatures: 25, 35, and 50 °C; - Agitation: 300 and 700 rpm; - Time: 0–190 h. | [103] |
Mixed bacterial culture of Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans and Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans | Waste from metal ore-mining processes/soil contaminated with metals | 50% Zn and 19% Fe | - 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing 10 g of sterilized contaminated soil, 90 mL of 0K medium (pH 1.7), and 10 mL of cell suspension; - Temperature: 30 °C; - Agitation: 150 rpm; - Time: 42 days. | [123] |
Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans | Light emitting diode (LED) waste | Adapted A. ferrooxidans had higher metal bioleaching rates than the non-adapted strain: 84% Cu, 96% Ni, and 60% Ga. The highest amount of LED powder tolerated by A. ferrooxidans was 20 g/L. | - 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask; - The adaptation of cell culture was carried out in five steps of 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 g/L LED powder, respectively - Temperature: 29 °C; - pH = 2; - Agitation: 140 rpm; - Time: 30 days. | [124] |
Pure and mixed cultures of moderately thermophilic bacteria Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidans and acidophilic heterotroph A1TSB | Electronic scrap/printed circuit boards (PCBs) | Maximum bioleachability: washed electronic scrap with mixed consortium of metal-adapted culture: 89% Cu, 81% Ni, 79% Al, and 83% Zn | - 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks with 10% scrap concentration under different experimental conditions; - Temperature: 45 °C; - pH = 1.2–2; - Time: 18 days. | [125] |
Consortium of autotrophic bacteria Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans | Abundant Li ore (lepidolite) | Bioleaching yield of almost 9% Li | - 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing 190 mL of nutrient rich or poor medium + 10 mL of adapted bacterial consortium + 10 g/L crushed lepidolite; - Temperature: 30 °C; - pH =1.5; - Agitation: 160 rpm; - Time: 366 days. | [110] |
Fungi | ||||
Aspergillus niger | Abundant Li ore (lepidolite) | Bioaccumulation of Li into the biomass was observed: 77% of the total solubilized Li Lowest bioleaching yield of 0.2% Li | - 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing 200 mL of standard liquid bioleaching media + 10 g/L crushed lepidolite; - Prior to leaching, the medium and mineral were sterilized; - Temperature: 21 °C; - pH = 5.1; - Agitation: 160 rpm; - Time: 366 days. | [110] |
Aspergillus niger (M1DGR), Aspergillus fumigatus (M3Ai), and Penicillium rubens (M2Aii) | Industrial contaminated soil | All isolates (A. fumigatus, Penicillium rubens, and A. niger) showed higher efficiency for Cd removal with 79%, 98%, and 98% in Sabouraud dextrose broth (SDB) medium A. niger and A. fumigatus showed higher efficiency for Cr (43% and 69%) in SDB medium | - A two-stage bioleaching process: 250 mL flask containing three different media (yeast peptone glucose (YPG), Sabouraud dextrose broth (SDB), and CM) + 2.5 g of sterilized contaminated soil sample; - Agitation: 130 rpm; - Temperature: 30 °C; - Time: 72 h. | [113] |
Aspergillus sclerotiorum (A1), Aspergillus aculeatus (E1), Aspergillus niger (G03), Komagataella phaffii (WS), and Trichoderma harzianum (Y1) | Contaminated mining soil | The better bioaccumulation capacity was exhibited by K. phaffii: Cd (25.23 mg/g); Cu (21.63 mg/g); Pb (20.63 mg/g), | - About 0.8 g of fresh biomass was transferred to 20 mL PDB, supplemented with different metal concentrations (50, 100, 150, and 200 ppm); - pH = 5; - Temperature: 25 °C; - Agitation: 150 rpm; - Time: 7 days. | [115] |
Mixed fungal culture of Purpureocillium lilacinum and Aspergillus niger | Waste PCBs | Extraction efficiency: 56.1% (Cu), 15.7 % (Al), 20.5% (Pb), 49.5% (Zn), and 8.1% (Sn) | - 3 L stirred tank reactor with 8% (w/v) pulp density of sterile waste PCBs; - Temperature: 30 °C; - Agitation: 300 rpm; - Air flow rate = 500 mL/min; - pH = 5. | [117] |
Aspergillus fumigatus | Soil mine tailings | One-step process at 1% (w/v): Pb (56%), As (62%), Fe (58%), Mn (100%), Zn (54%) Two-step process at 1% (w/v): Pb (88%), As (32%), Fe (45%), Mn (58.4%), Zn (31.3%) | - One-step process: sterilized 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing 1 mL spore suspension inoculated + 100 mL sucrose medium + sterilized tailings samples at 1%, 2%, 4%, or 8% (w/v); - Two-step process: 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask containing 100 mL sterilized sucrose medium inoculated + 1 mL of fungal spore suspension +, after 15 days, sterilized tailings samples at 1%, 2%, 4%, or 8% (w/v) were added; - Temperature: 30 °C; - Agitation: 150 rpm; - pH = 2.75 to 8.16; - Time: 40 days. | [126] |
Aspergillus niger | Power plant residual (PPR) ash | At maximum pulp density of 9 (%w/v): V (83%) and Ni (30%) | - Spent-medium bioleaching: bubble column bioreactor fermentation experiments followed by leaching tests in Erlenmeyer flasks with various pulp densities of PPR ash (1, 2, 3, 5, 7, and 9 (%w/v)); - Time: 7 days; - Temperature: 60 °C; - Agitation: 130 rpm; - Optimum conditions in bubble column: Aeration rate of 762.5 (mL/min), sucrose concentration of 101.9 (g/L), and inoculum size of 40 (mL/L). | [127] |
Soil Type | Pollutant Type | Bioleaching Strain | Operating Conditions | Efficiency | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Industrial soil sites (Pakistan) | Pb, Hg | Indigenous fungi isolated from soil (Aspergillus niger (M1), Aspergillus fumigatus (M3), Aspergillus terreus (M6), and Aspergillus flavus (M7)) | - Lab scale: 250 mL pre-sterilized conical flasks inoculated with types of media (YPG, CYE, and SDB); - Two-step bioleaching; - Temperature: 30 °C; - Shaking at 120 rpm for 120 h. | - Pb removal rate at 99.20% and 99.30% using A. fumigatus and A. flavus, respectively; - Hg removal rate of 96% and 95.50% in the YPG medium using A. niger and A. terreus, respectively; - The highest Pb uptake efficiency: 8.52 mg/g in the YPG medium; - The highest Hg uptake efficiency: 0.41 mg/g in the CYE medium. | [113] |
Industrial soil site (smeltery) (China) | Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn | Penicillium chrysogenum strain F1 | - Lab-scale: 250 mL flask; - Two-step bioleaching; - Temperature: 28 °C; - Shaking at 120 rpm for 8 days. | - Cd: 152 mg/kg, 30.8%; - Cu: 564 mg/kg, 97.5%; - Pb: 3160 mg/kg, 32.8%; - Zn: 7812 mg/kg, 80.4%. | [139] |
Industrial soil site (smeltery) (China) | Zn, Pb, Mn, Cd, Cu | Microorganism isolated from a vegetable oil sample: Burkholderia sp. Z-90 | - Lab-scale: 500 mL flask; - Two-step bioleaching; - Temperature: 35 °C; - Shaking at 180 rpm for 5 days. | - 44.0% for Zn, 32.5% for Pb, 52.2% for Mn, 37.7% for Cd, 24.1% for Cu, and 31.6% for As. | [140] |
Contaminated soil from a smelting plant (China) | Pb, Zn, Cd, Cu | Aspergillus niger F2 | - Lab-scale: 250 mL flask; - Two-step bioleaching; - Temperatures: 25 °C, 30 °C, and 35 °C; - pH = 5, 7, and 9; - Shaking at 120 rpm for 7 days. | - At 30 °C, pH = 5, bioleaching by A. niger with sucrose, glucose, maltose, lactose, and starch: 69.86% for Cd, 66.57% for Cu, 64.59% for Pb, and 69.01% for Zn. | [141] |
Agricultural soil (Clemson University, South Carolina) | As | Aspergillus niger | - Lab-scale: 250 mL flask containing 180 mL growth medium + 15 g soil + 1 mL of A. niger inoculum (with or without glucose as a carbon source); - One-step bioleaching; - Temperature: 30 °C; - Shaking at 200 rpm for 28 days. | - 7.9% removal of As in case of glucose/ A. niger treatment. | [142] |
Industrial soil sites (Romania) | Cu, Pb, Cr, Ni | Thiobacillus ferrooxidans (TF) | - Lab-scale: 250 mL flask: TF inoculated in 9K medium * (20 mL or and 40 mL) +10 g of soil; - One-step bioleaching; - Temperature: 27 °C; - Shaking at 200 rpm for 12 h. | Cu: 29–76%; Pb: 10–32%; Cr: 39–72%; Ni: 44–68%. | [143] |
Soil of smelting industry site (China) | Cd, Pb, Zn | Aspergillus flavus | - One-step bioleaching: fungus incubated with the medium and sterile soil in a rotary shaking incubator for 15 days; - Two-step bioleaching: pure culture of the fungus was run for 6 days, and then sterile soil was added; bioleaching experiment: rotary shaker for 9 days. | - 130 mg/L sucrose for A. flavus in bioleaching for 15 days (16.38% for Pb, 30.55% for Cd and 52.66% for Zn); - Cd and Zn were higher in two-step bioleaching (49.66% for Cd and 65.73% for Zn); - Optimum conditions: sucrose as carbon source, pH 7, and 30 °C. | [144] |
Agricultural soil (China) | Pb, Zn, Cr, Cu, Ni, Cd | Aspergillus tubingensis F12 | - Soil column: length of 2 cm, inner diameter of 1 cm with 1 g of soil + 20 mL of EPS solution. | - EPS adsorbed metals at a significantly higher rate than the F12 pellets. | [145] |
Soil of smelting industry site (China) | Pb, Cr, Cd, Cu, Mn, Zn | Soil-originated Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria (Providencia sp. LLDRA6)+ BioMnOx (oxidation of Mn(II) into BioMnOx on the cell surface) | - 500 mL of leachate in 1 L Erlenmeyer flask, continuously shaking at 35 °C at 180 rpm; - Solid ratio: 1:5, 1:10, 1:15 and 1:20 (w/v). | Pb: 81.72%; Cr: 88.29%; Cd: 90.34%; Cu: 91.25%; Mn: 56.13%; Zn: 59.83%. | [146] |
Soil sample collected from uranium tailings (China) | U | Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans ATCC 23,270, Leptospirillum ferriphilum YSK, Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans A01, and Acidithiobacillus ferrivorans YL15 | - Lab-scale: 250 mL flask: 15 g of sterilized soil + 150 mL culture medium + 5 g/L iron +5 g/L elemental sulfur inoculated with the four bacteria in a volume ratio of 1:1:1:1 | - 85.81% removal of U, in case of mixed consortium. | [147] |
Sediment samples (Deûle Canal, France) | Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb | - Fungi (Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum); - Indigenous microflora. | - Semi-pilot scale: 45 L air-lift bioreactors; - Temperature: 30 °C; - Fungal leaching experiment: inoculum ratio of 10% (w/w); - Bacterial leaching experiment: inoculum ratio of 5% (w/w) sulfur enrichment. | - Fungi under saccharose treatment after 45 days: 77% for Mn, 44% for Zn, 12% for Cu, 1.6% for Cd, and <2% for Pb; - Bacteria under sulfur treatment after 30 days: 72% of Cu, 85% of Mn, 91% of Zn, and 93% of Cd. | [148] |
Sediment samples (Puti Lake, China) | Cu, Ni, Zn | Indigenous sludge bacteria obtained from the Hangzhou Qige Wastewater Treatment Plant | - Lab-scale: 250 mL flask (150 mL working volume); - Inoculum: 1% (v/v); - Solid ratio: 1% (w/v); - Sulfur: 3 g/L; - Initial pH: 8.0; - Temperature: 28 °C; - Shaking at 180 rpm for 9 days. | - Cu: 284 mg/kg, 74.27%; - Ni: 84 mg/kg, 35.35%; - Zn: 394 mg/kg, 69.92%. | [149] |
Contaminated sediment samples from Ell Ren River (southern Taiwan) | Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr | Indigenous sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms from sediment | - Continuous bioleaching experiments: 50 L (working volume) continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR) agitated at 200 rpm and 30 °C; - 10% (v/v) of acclimated sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms; - Hydraulic retention time: 10 days; - Aeration rate: 12 L-air/min; - Operation time: 30 days. | -At 3–5% of sulfur dosage: Zn: 47–81%; Ni: 60–93%; Cu: 41–91%; Cr: 13–72%. | [150] |
Sludge mine sediment (Czech Republic) | Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb | Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans | - Bioleaching of samples in pilot plant conditions in a Bioflo/CelliGen 310 bioreactor; - Temperature: 30 °C; - pH = 2.0; - 2.5% and 4.2% (w/v) pulp densities; - Agitation: 150 rpm; - Particle size < 40–200 µm; - Time: 42 days. | - At 2.5% (w/v): Zn: 97.08%; Fe: 58.75%; Cu: 79.11%; Pb: 89.35%. - At 4.2% (w/v): Zn: 95.03%; Fe: 47.08%; Cu: 73.03%; Pb: 80.69%. | [151] |
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Cozma, P.; Bețianu, C.; Hlihor, R.-M.; Simion, I.M.; Gavrilescu, M. Bio-Recovery of Metals through Biomining within Circularity-Based Solutions. Processes 2024, 12, 1793. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12091793
Cozma P, Bețianu C, Hlihor R-M, Simion IM, Gavrilescu M. Bio-Recovery of Metals through Biomining within Circularity-Based Solutions. Processes. 2024; 12(9):1793. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12091793
Chicago/Turabian StyleCozma, Petronela, Camelia Bețianu, Raluca-Maria Hlihor, Isabela Maria Simion, and Maria Gavrilescu. 2024. "Bio-Recovery of Metals through Biomining within Circularity-Based Solutions" Processes 12, no. 9: 1793. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12091793