Bacterial Cellulose in Food Packaging: A Bibliometric Analysis and Review of Sustainable Innovations and Prospects

Abstract

The scientific community has explored new packaging materials owing to environmental challenges and pollution from plastic waste. Bacterial cellulose (BC), produced by bacteria like Gluconacetobacter xylinus, shows high potential for food preservation owing to its exceptional mechanical strength, high crystallinity, and effective barrier properties against gases and moisture, making it a promising alternative to conventional plastics. This review highlights recent advances in BC production, particularly agro-industrial residues, which reduce costs and enhance environmental sustainability. Incorporating antimicrobial agents into BC matrices has also led to active packaging solutions that extend food shelf-life and improve safety. A bibliometric analysis reveals a significant increase in research on BC over the last decade, reflecting growing global interest. Key research themes include the development of BC-based composites and the exploration of their antimicrobial properties. Critical areas for future research include improving BC production’s scalability and economic viability and the integration of BC with other biopolymers. These developments emphasize BC’s potential as a sustainable packaging material and its role in the circular economy through waste valorization.

1. Introduction

Plastics like PET, HDPE, and PP are prevalent in food packaging owing to their durability and barrier properties. Paper, glass, and metals serve specific purposes, such as secondary packaging and protecting products from light and moisture. However, among these materials, plastics are the most prevalent and problematic in terms of environmental impact. Over 8 million tons of plastic are estimated to end up in oceans yearly, causing significant harm to marine life and ecosystems [1]. Additionally, petroleum-derived plastics are responsible for many greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to climate change [2].

Plastic pollution also has severe implications for human health. Recently, studies have revealed the presence of microplastics in the human body. The presence of microplastics in human tissues has raised concerns about their long-term effects, such as toxicity and inflammation, warranting further research [3,4,5].

The growing concern over environmental sustainability and the negative impacts of plastic waste has driven the search for more eco-friendly alternatives. In this context, bacterial cellulose emerges as a promising and sustainable option for food packaging. BC, produced by bacteria such as Gluconacetobacter xylinus, offers high purity, mechanical strength, flexibility, and superior barrier properties compared to plant cellulose and biopolymers like PLA and PHA, making it ideal for sustainable food packaging [6,7]. BC is a biodegradable, compostable alternative to plastics, derived from renewable sources and decomposing without leaving toxic residues [8].

Compared to plant cellulose and other biopolymers like PLA and PHA, BC offers higher purity, superior mechanical strength, and enhanced barrier properties, making it ideal for sustainable food packaging. The interest in BC has grown owing to its physical properties and significant environmental advantages. In addition to the mentioned properties, BC exhibits high water retention capacity, excellent transparency, and a highly organized nanofibrillar structure that contributes to its outstanding barrier properties against gases and moisture. These characteristics make BC an effective alternative to conventional packaging materials. The environmental advantages of BC include its biodegradability and compostability, allowing it to decompose quickly in the environment without leaving toxic residues [9]. Furthermore, BC production can utilize renewable sources and agricultural byproducts, reducing dependence on fossil resources and minimizing environmental impact. Recently, technological advancements have enabled the large-scale production of BC, making its commercial application viable in various sectors, including the food industry [8,10]. This is particularly relevant for the food industry, where product safety and extended shelf-life are top priorities. As highlighted in

Table 1. Comparison of properties between bacterial cellulose and traditional plant cellulose.

Property	Bacterial Cellulose	Plant Cellulose
Source	Produced by bacteria, especially Gluconacetobacter xylinus	Derived from plants such as cotton, wood, and bamboo
Purity	High purity, free of lignin and hemicellulose	Contains lignin, hemicellulose, and other components
Structure	Three-dimensional network of nanofibers	Fibers arranged in hierarchical structures
Crystallinity	High crystallinity	Varies depending on the source and treatment
Mechanical Strength	High tensile strength (up to 200 MPa)	Variable strength (40–200 MPa) depending on the source and treatment
Flexibility	High flexibility	Less flexible compared to bacterial cellulose
Barrier Properties	Excellent barrier against gases and moisture	Variable barrier properties, generally inferior to bacterial cellulose
Biocompatibility	Naturally non-toxic, high biocompatibility	High biocompatibility but may contain impurities that need to be removed

, BC surpasses plant cellulose in purity, mechanical strength, and barrier properties, making it an attractive option for food packaging.

Furthermore, BC is naturally non-toxic and biocompatible, offering significant advantages in terms of food safety. Unlike synthetic materials, it does not leach harmful chemicals into food. BC can also be easily functionalized by incorporating antimicrobial or antioxidant agents, transforming it into active packaging that protects food physically, extends shelf-life, and prevents contamination. This functionalization potential provides BC with a versatility that many other biopolymers, including PLA and PHA, do not offer to the same extent.

Given the growing interest in using bacterial cellulose (BC) as a sustainable packaging material, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of its properties, production methods, current applications, and prospects in the food packaging industry. Specifically, this review focuses on (1) the unique properties of BC, such as its biodegradability and excellent mechanical and barrier properties; (2) the potential for utilizing agro-industrial residues as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly raw material for BC production; (3) the incorporation of antimicrobial agents into BC matrices for active packaging applications; and (4) a bibliometric analysis of research trends, identifying key areas of innovation and challenges in BC development. Additionally, this review discusses the technical and economic challenges related to the large-scale production of BC and its potential to replace conventional packaging materials in a circular economy.

Given the above, this review article aims to explore the properties, production methods, current applications, and potential future uses of bacterial cellulose in food packaging. The diversity of characteristics and uses of this biomaterial will be discussed, as well as the technical challenges and research and development perspectives necessary to establish BC as a sustainable and innovative solution for the packaging industry. A systematic analysis of articles published between 2010 and 2023 was performed to conduct this study, using databases such as Scopus and Web of Science. Patents addressing technological and environmental aspects related to the use of BC in food packaging were also investigated. The review included a critical evaluation of BC production methods, its physical and functional properties, and its applications in different types of packaging. Finally, we propose future research directions, including optimizing fermentation processes and developing BC-based composite materials to maximize their positive impact on the industry and the environment.

2. Bibliometric Research Methodology

A bibliometric analysis was performed using the Bibliometrix package in R, with data from the Scopus database. The search terms “bacterial cellulose” and “food packaging” were carefully selected to ensure comprehensive and relevant data collection. The analysis focused on publications from the last 10 years (2013–2023) to capture the most recent trends in the field. Searches were conducted in Scopus, and the results were exported in .bib format for compatibility with the Bibliometrix package. The data were then filtered to remove duplicates, focusing on articles, reviews, and conference papers. The final dataset was stored in Mendeley^® software 1.19.5 for further analysis. Key information, such as author details, institutions (first and corresponding author), country of origin, publication year, journal, keywords, abstract, and title, was analyzed using VOSviewer (version 1.6.20) and Bibliometrix. The bibliometric analysis emphasized research relevance, citation count, and connection to the topic, ensuring a robust overview of the current research landscape in bacterial cellulose applications in food packaging.

3. Bibliometric Research Results

The bibliometric analysis highlighted the growing interest in BC across multiple scientific areas. After removing duplicate entries, we identified 12,726 publications focused on bacterial cellulose and 1678 publications addressing its applications in the food industry. Figure 1 illustrates the scientific output over the last 10 years (2014–2024) related to “bacterial cellulose” and “bacterial cellulose in food”. The data indicate a significant increase in publications related to bacterial cellulose, especially from 2016 onward, with a peak observed around 2022. This trend reflects the growing interest in BC as a versatile biopolymer, driven by its potential applications in several areas, including biomedicine, electronics, and food packaging. Publications specifically focused on the application of bacterial cellulose in the food industry showed a more modest but steady increase over the same period. Although the total number of publications in this area remained lower than that of general BC research, the upward trend suggests that the potential of BC in food applications is gaining recognition and attracting increasing attention from researchers.

Figure 2 presents a three-field graph that illustrates the correlation between the title, keywords, and sources of the published articles, indicating the connection between the most represented keywords and the journals in which these works were published. In the title field, terms such as “cellulose”, “bacterial”, “production”, and “packaging” dominate, reflecting the focus of research on the production and application of bacterial cellulose, especially in the context of packaging. The correlation between these terms and keywords, such as “bacterial cellulose”, “food packaging”, “antibacterial activity”, and “chitosan”, demonstrates the areas of interest within the research, such as antimicrobial functionality and the use of biopolymers in active packaging. The source field reveals the leading journals that published these articles, such as the International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, Carbohydrate Polymers, and Food Chemistry. These journals are directly connected with the predominant keywords, indicating that they are the primary vehicles for disseminating research related to bacterial cellulose and specific trends.

The global distribution of publications on bacterial cellulose in food applications reveals a significant research concentration in some leading nations. China is the main contributor, followed by India and the United States (Figure 3). Significant investment in biotechnology and sustainable materials in China aligns with global sustainability and plastic waste reduction goals, positioning the country as a leader in this research area. European countries like Italy and Spain play a significant role in researching biopolymers and sustainable materials, supported by EU policies that promote the circular economy and reducing single-use plastics. Brazil is the main contributor in Latin America in the southern hemisphere, indicating the increasing importance of research on sustainable materials in the region and the potential for utilizing local natural resources as substrates to produce bacterial cellulose. Iran, Canada, and South Korea are also investigative hubs for researching bacterial cellulose, indicating this development area’s global impact.

Figure 4 categorizes the research themes, providing in-depth insight into the evolution and scientific priorities within the field of bacterial cellulose in food applications. The motor themes located in the upper right quadrant, such as “bacteria”, “cellulase”, and “biodegradation”, indicate that the biological basis and fundamental processes related to the production and degradation of bacterial cellulose are well-established areas of study and critical to advancing the field. These results suggest that a deep understanding of these processes may be necessary for the development of new applications of bacterial cellulose, particularly in packaging that requires specific characteristics such as controlled biodegradability and interaction with microbial environments. The basic themes presented in the lower right quadrant, including “bacterial cellulose”, “antibacterial activity”, “food packaging”, and “chitosan”, reveal research areas that, despite being widely recognized as necessary, are still at an early or intermediate stage of development. These results suggest that, while the potential of bacterial cellulose as a packaging material is already recognized, technical and scientific challenges must be overcome. For example, the development of packaging with effective antibacterial activity using compounds such as chitosan is an area that requires further study to optimize the functionality and commercial viability of these materials.

The niche themes in the upper left quadrant, such as “dietary fiber”, “gut microbiota”, and “microbiota”, indicate that there are specific and highly specialized subfields that, although not the central focus of bacterial cellulose research in food, have significant relevance in specific contexts. These results suggest continued interest in exploring how bacterial cellulose may interact with human health, possibly in areas related to nutrition and the microbiota, thus expanding the scope of BC applications beyond packaging.

On the other hand, the emerging or declining themes in the lower left quadrant, such as “probiotics”, “smart packaging”, and “Bacillus subtilis”, present future research directions. “Smart packaging” as an emerging theme indicates a growing interest in developing packaging solutions that protect food and interact with the environment or content, responding to changes or indicating product quality. This suggests a promising area of technological innovation that could significantly advance food safety and extend the shelf-life of packaged products. Thus, although there are well-established areas, such as fundamental biological processes, there is still much room for innovation and development in emerging areas.

Figure 5A presents a conceptual map resulting from a factor analysis, which maps the applications of bacterial cellulose in food across different scientific domains. This map is essential to understanding how the topics are interrelated and which research areas are most influential or emerging. In the yellow region, there are strong connections between terms such as “optimization”, “fermentation”, and “characterization” and bacteria such as Komagataeibacter xylinus and Acetobacter xylinus. These topics involve developing and refining biotechnological processes to produce bacterial cellulose. This indicates a focus on optimizing production and characterizing the properties of cellulose, aiming to improve the efficiency and stability of fermentation processes.

The blue region dominates the map, highlighting the broad range of applications for bacterial cellulose, including its antibacterial properties, active packaging, and food safety. Terms like nanocellulose, chitosan, mechanical properties, and biodegradability are closely grouped, reflecting a strong interest in using bacterial cellulose composites for food packaging. This research aims to enhance food’s functional properties and safety, demonstrating how bacterial cellulose can replace traditional materials owing to its biodegradability and antibacterial characteristics. In the red region, topics such as silver nanoparticles, cellulose fibrils, and cellulose nanocrystals focus on improving packaging materials’ barrier properties against gases and moisture, crucial for food preservation and extending shelf-life.

The green region focuses on terms like antioxidants, cellulose nanofibers, and gelatin, indicating research efforts to incorporate antioxidant compounds into bacterial cellulose films to enhance food preservation and nutritional quality. The integration of cellulose nanofibers aims to improve film structure and functionality, making films more versatile and efficient. Finally, the pink region, though smaller, highlights the use of antioxidant compounds like curcumin, known for its preservative properties.

Figure 5B provides a hierarchical grouping of terms related to “bacterial cellulose in food” applications based on their conceptual similarities. The dendrogram identifies several branches that reflect key areas of bacterial cellulose research. One cluster connects terms like “antibacterial properties”, “active food packaging”, “chitosan”, and “nanocomposites”, emphasizing the functional properties of bacterial cellulose, particularly for packaging requiring antibacterial and active protective features. Another significant cluster includes terms like “fermentation”, “characterization”, “production”, and “stability”, which focus on optimizing bacterial cellulose production processes and ensuring consistent quality, which is essential for its various applications. Also, the interconnection of terms related to barrier properties and nanotechnology, such as “cellulose nanocrystals”, “silver nanoparticles”, and “barrier properties”, suggests a focus on improving the barrier properties of food packaging using nanotechnology and specific additives, such as silver nanoparticles, known for their antimicrobial properties. The interconnection of cellulose nanocrystals, silver nanoparticles, and barrier properties suggests research into improving food packaging’s barrier properties using nanotechnology and additives like silver nanoparticles, known for their antimicrobial effects. In addition, terms such as “curcumin”, “antioxidant activity”, and “incorporation of bioactive compounds” appear grouped, indicating a growing interest in the incorporation of compounds that can extend the shelf-life of packaged foods, protecting them from oxidation and other deterioration processes.

The dendrogram also highlights a cluster focused on nanomaterials, nanofibrillated cellulose, and cellulose fibrils, suggesting that research is being directed toward manipulating the nanostructure of bacterial cellulose to improve its mechanical and barrier properties. This shows how production, characterization, and practical applications are interconnected and how integrating nanotechnology and bioactive compounds could lead to more efficient and functional food packaging.

The co-occurrence network in Figure 6 displays how terms related to “bacterial cellulose in food” applications are interconnected in the scientific literature, as detailed in

Table 2. Keyword occurrence and total link strength in the context of bacterial cellulose applications in food packaging.

Keyword	Occurrence	Total Link Strength	Keyword	Occurrence	Total Link Strength
Bacterial cellulose	349	314	Antimicrobial	41	64
Food Packing	76	117	Antibacterial	49	63
Chitosan	69	109	Cellulose nanocrystals	42	62
Antibacterial activity	84	104	Antimicrobial activity	43	61
Cellulose	92	82	Carboxymethyl cellulose	41	53
Active packing	48	76	Antioxidant	24	46
Nanocellulose	58	72	Mechanical properties	27	44

. At the center of this network is “bacterial cellulose”, highlighting its central role and relevance in ongoing research. Various branches connect bacterial cellulose to other important topics, represented by circles of different sizes that indicate their relative significance. The green cluster emphasizes terms like “antibacterial activity”, “food packaging”, and “nanocellulose”, signaling a strong focus on the functional properties of bacterial cellulose.

In the red cluster, terms such as “cellulose”, “biofilm”, and “cellulose nanofibrils” indicate a focus on optimizing production processes and exploring the structural characteristics of bacterial cellulose. Research in this area aims to improve materials’ mechanical properties and stability, adjusting their structures to maximize efficiency and applicability in different industrial contexts, including the packaging sector.

The blue cluster, which includes terms such as “fermentation”, “Acetobacter xylinum”, and “food waste”, reflects the importance of microbiological aspects in the bacterial cellulose production process. This cluster suggests a growing interest in optimizing fermentation conditions and exploring the use of food waste as a substrate, promoting a more sustainable and cost-effective approach to bacterial cellulose production.

On the other hand, the purple cluster, with terms such as “silver nanoparticles” and “barrier properties”, points to research seeking to improve the barrier properties of packaging through nanotechnology. This cluster highlights the potential to create packaging materials with superior moisture and gas protection capabilities, which may improve long-term food preservation. Furthermore, the yellow cluster, which includes terms such as “antioxidant activity” and “curcumin”, suggests research on incorporating bioactive compounds into bacterial cellulose materials. This indicates an innovative approach to creating packaging that protects food and contributes to its preservation through antioxidant properties, extending shelf-life and improving nutritional quality.

4. Deposited Patents in the Area of BC Production for Packaging

Bacterial cellulose (BC) has become a material of great interest in the food packaging industry owing to its biodegradability, high tensile strength, and adaptability for different applications. As global demand for sustainable and eco-friendly packaging solutions grows, BC-based technologies have emerged as promising alternatives to synthetic polymers. Various innovative patents have been developed to improve the scalability and applicability of BC in large-scale food packaging. These patents address critical challenges, such as production costs and scalability, while introducing advanced features like enhanced mechanical properties, biodegradability, and antimicrobial capabilities.

The patents discussed here highlight significant advancements in BC’s adaptation for modern packaging needs, ranging from edible films made from agricultural byproducts to multi-layered biopolymer composites. By integrating BC with other biocompatible and biodegradable substances, these patents improve its mechanical properties and barrier functions, making it suitable for various packaging applications. New functionalization methods, such as incorporating antimicrobial agents and thermoforming techniques, also expand BC’s utility in packaging perishable goods. These patents present novel techniques for enhancing BC’s performance, cost-effectiveness, and practicality for real-world applications, offering a comprehensive overview of the latest advancements in BC technology.

A significant patent by Jiazhou et al. [11] discusses the development of an edible packaging material made entirely from BC. The method involves using fruit and vegetable juices, such as coconut milk, chayote juice, and white gourd juice, as raw materials in fermentation with Acetobacter xylinum or Acetobacter pasteurianus strains. The resulting BC film is treated with an alkaline solution followed by hydrogen peroxide and then dried to form an edible, biodegradable packaging material. This innovation makes use of readily available agricultural byproducts, enhancing the sustainability of the process. BC-based edible packaging is valuable for applications requiring direct packaging consumption or rapid biodegradation, offering a promising alternative to traditional synthetic materials.

Jian-Jiang Zhong et al. [12] address the cost-efficiency and functionalization of BC by combining it with biocompatible materials such as starch, sorbitol, and glycerin. This patent outlines a method for producing BC-based films that incorporate these additives, improving mechanical properties such as flexibility and strength while reducing production costs. This integration of materials addresses a significant challenge in BC commercialization: the high cost associated with large-scale production. By optimizing the film composition, this patent makes BC more feasible for widespread use in the food packaging industry, where cost considerations are critical. Additionally, the patent explores using these films as active packaging, where functional additives such as antimicrobial agents can enhance food preservation.

The scalability and application of BC are further advanced by Hess et al. [13], whose patent explores the development of bacterial cellulose hydrogels, organogels, and aerogels for use in food packaging. These BC gels are produced through a process that controls the moisture content and structural properties of the cellulose, resulting in materials that exhibit high optical transparency, mechanical flexibility, and thermal resistance. This makes BC gels highly suitable for applications requiring flexibility and durability, such as films or coatings. Notably, the gels also provide a barrier against oxygen and moisture, key factors in extending the shelf-life of food products. The patent also incorporates cellulose nanomaterials, such as nanorods, fibers, and ribbons, further enhancing the packaging’s mechanical properties and barrier performance. This innovation opens the door to scaling BC production for commercial use, offering an eco-friendly alternative to conventional plastics while maintaining the necessary performance for food packaging applications.

Missoum et al. [14] introduced a thermoforming technique that allows BC to be molded into rigid or semi-rigid containers. This process involves shaping BC into complex forms for various packaging purposes while maintaining the material’s biodegradable and environmentally friendly nature. The thermoforming of BC enables the production of containers with enhanced mechanical properties, such as increased tensile strength and impact resistance, making them suitable for protecting a wide range of food products. This innovation offers a viable alternative to plastic containers, particularly in applications requiring structural integrity and sustainability.

The patent by Tajima et al. [15] makes a notable contribution by enhancing the dispersibility and compatibility of BC with other biodegradable materials. This innovation focuses on producing highly dispersible BC that is easily integrated into composite films. The key advance described in this patent uses Gluconacetobacter intermedius strain SIID9587, which produces BC with superior water dispersibility when cultivated in a culture medium containing carbon sources like molasses or waste glycerol derived from biodiesel production. This process enhances the uniformity of BC dispersion in liquid media, a critical factor for forming high-quality composite films. By increasing BC’s miscibility with other materials, this patent enables the creation of films with improved mechanical properties and barrier functions. Additionally, alternative carbon sources, such as molasses and glycerol, significantly reduce production costs, making BC a more feasible solution for large-scale applications. This advancement is essential for multi-material packaging solutions, where BC can be blended with other biopolymers to enhance overall performance while maintaining sustainability.

Stanley et al. [16] present a flexible barrier packaging innovation derived from renewable resources. This patent details the creation of multilayered barrier packaging, where the layers consist of biobased polymers and various bio-derived materials. The outer layer, composed of bio-polyethylene or bio-polyester, provides structural stability and serves as a printing surface. Between the outer substrate and the sealant layer, a tie layer incorporating biobased adhesives ensures strong lamination, providing mechanical integrity to the package. An optional barrier material, such as metal oxide or nano clay, can be laminated within the structure to enhance the packaging’s moisture and oxygen transmission resistance. This is fundamental for maintaining food freshness. Importantly, Stanley et al.’s patent specifies that the biobased content of the packaging materials must reach at least 85%, minimizing reliance on petroleum-based components. This innovation showcases the potential of biopolymer composites to rival conventional plastic packaging while offering improved environmental performance. The inclusion of renewable resources like polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) within the packaging structure further reinforces its sustainability credential. This patent illustrates how BC composites could be integrated into multilayered barrier films for applications requiring robust, flexible, high-performance food packaging.

5. BC Properties and Applications

5.1. BC Films

BC films have shown promise in packaging fresh produce, such as fruits and vegetables, through extending shelf-life by reducing respiration rates and delaying ripening [17]. Research indicates that BC films coated with antimicrobial compounds, such as essential oils, effectively inhibit pathogens, enhancing food safety [18].

In a recent study, laminated films made of bacterial cellulose and chitosan enriched with grape bagasse extract and glycerol demonstrated enhanced mechanical strength and significant antioxidant capacity. When used as separators for Havarti cheese, these films showed a 67.3% reduction in lipid oxidation over 60 days, highlighting their potential to extend the shelf-life of cheese and other food products. The addition of grape bagasse extract provided antioxidant properties and contributed to the film’s mechanical flexibility and thermal stability, making it a promising eco-friendly alternative for food packaging applications [19].

Li et al. [20] developed a multifunctional pH-responsive film by incorporating enzymatically produced bacterial nanocellulose into a konjac glucomannan matrix, stabilized with camellia oil Pickering emulsion. The film showed improved mechanical strength (37.43 MPa), thermal stability, and antioxidant properties. The inclusion of 0.4% EBNC enhanced colorimetric performance, allowing the film to act as a pH-sensitive shrimp freshness indicator. Additionally, water vapor permeability was reduced by 47.6%. These results highlight the potential of EBNC-based emulsions for intelligent food packaging solutions.

Mesgari et al. [21] developed a bacterial cellulose (BC)/xanthan gum/cerium oxide (CeO₂) nanoparticle composite film for active food packaging. The 50 nm CeO₂ nanoparticles exhibited strong antimicrobial properties, inhibiting Escherichia coli by 93.7% and Staphylococcus aureus by 98% at 1250 μg/mL. The film demonstrated excellent mechanical strength, thermal stability, and reduced water vapor permeability (3.02 × 10⁻¹¹ g/m²sPa). Additionally, it showed significant antioxidant activity, with a DPPH radical scavenging capacity of 72%. This composite film is a promising material for extending food shelf-life, especially in applications requiring antimicrobial and antioxidant properties.

Ma et al. [22] developed active films using bacterial cellulose (BC) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) with Perilla essential oil (PEO) Pickering emulsions stabilized by soybean protein isolate-chitosan nanoparticles (SPI-CSNPs). These films showed enhanced mechanical properties, with tensile strength ranging from 62.02 to 94.75 MPa and elongation at break improving from 26.78% to 55.62% as the SCEO concentration increased. The films also demonstrated better thermal stability, antioxidant activity (DPPH scavenging up to 62.32%), and antibacterial properties, with inhibition zones reaching 27.3 mm for Escherichia coli and 30.46 mm for Staphylococcus aureus. These films extended the shelf-life of chilled beef by up to 14 days, making them a promising option for food preservation.

Zhou et al. [23] developed highly pH-sensitive bacterial cellulose nanofibers/gelatin-based intelligent films by loading them with anthocyanin and curcumin in various ratios (10:0, 0:10, 2:8, 5:5, and 8:2). These films exhibited significant color changes in response to pH variations, making them practical for monitoring the freshness of fresh pork. Among the tested formulations, the films with a curcumin-to-anthocyanin ratio of 5:5 demonstrated the best mechanical and antioxidant properties and high sensitivity to pH changes. When applied as packaging for fresh pork, these films effectively maintained the meat’s freshness, with total volatile elemental nitrogen (TVB-N) values remaining below the spoilage threshold of 25 mg/100 g for three days, indicating their potential as intelligent packaging materials for extending the shelf-life of meat products.

Retegi et al. [24] explored the development of bacterial cellulose (BC) films with varying porosities to enhance their mechanical properties. The study involved compressing BC pellicles, produced by Gluconobacter xylinum, under different pressures (10, 50, and 100 MPa) to control the films’ porosity and, consequently, their mechanical behavior. The results indicated that increasing the compression pressure led to higher tensile strength and elongation at break, with tensile strengths of 87.5 MPa, 165.0 MPa, and 182.5 MPa for films compressed at 10, 50, and 100 MPa, respectively. The study also found a reduction in porosity from 13.6% at 10 MPa to 3.2% at 100 MPa, correlating with improved film density and crystallinity. These findings suggest that controlling the microstructure of BC films through compression molding can significantly influence their mechanical performance, making them suitable for high-performance applications in food packaging.

Abdelkader et al. [25] developed an eco-friendly, pH-sensitive film by immobilizing red cabbage extract (RCE) within bacterial cellulose (BC) to serve as a sensor for microbial contamination and gamma irradiation in stored cucumbers. The study demonstrated that the RCE-BC film exhibited significant color changes corresponding to pH shifts caused by bacterial growth, with a strong correlation (R² = 0.91) between color change and bacterial count. Additionally, the RCE-BC films effectively detected gamma irradiation doses, showing a gradual decrease in color intensity with increasing radiation, which could be used to monitor the preservation of cucumbers. The films successfully detected contamination and irradiation within the first five days of storage, making them a promising tool for intelligent food packaging.

Chen et al. [9] developed fully biodegradable packaging films using oil-infused bacterial cellulose (OBC) for fresh food storage. The OBC films exhibited significant improvements in mechanical properties, including a 3.4-fold increase in elongation at break and enhanced optical transparency with a transmittance of 82.6% at 500 nm. These films demonstrated a water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) of 101.7 g/m²/day and an oxygen transmission rate (OTR) of 418 cm³/m²/day, which are substantially lower than those of pure bacterial cellulose films. When used to package strawberries, the OBC films achieved a 0% moldy rate after 5 days at 23 °C, in contrast to 100% for poly(ethylene) packaging. Additionally, the OBC films degraded completely in moist soil within 9 days, maintaining their high biodegradability while offering superior protection for fresh produce.

5.2. BC Coatings

Coatings with bacterial cellulose (BC) are applied directly to the surface of perishable foods to form a protective barrier, which is particularly useful for products like meats that benefit from reduced oxygen exposure [26].

Deng et al. [27] developed an ecological packaging material by combining bacterial cellulose (BC) with ethyl cellulose (EC) to create a pure cellulose film with enhanced water resistance and mechanical properties. The EC-BC films demonstrated remarkable tensile strength, reaching 195.3 ± 23.2 MPa, and maintained stability in liquid environments, with a wet tensile strength of 136.9 ± 24.2 MPa after 30 min of immersion in water. Additionally, the films exhibited excellent biodegradability, fully degrading within 40 days when buried in soil and demonstrating a significant reduction in environmental impact compared to conventional single-use plastics. These findings suggest that EC-BC films could serve as a sustainable alternative for food packaging, addressing the environmental challenges posed by traditional plastics.

Muhammed et al. [28] developed a multifaceted bacterial cellulose (BC) film by incorporating citrus pectin (CP) and thyme essential oil (TEO) through ex-situ fabrication for use in active food packaging. The BC-CP1/TEO₂ composite film demonstrated significantly enhanced mechanical strength, increasing the tensile strength from 126.37 MPa to 183.24 MPa and substantially reducing water vapor permeability from 3.69 × 10⁻¹¹ g·m⁻¹·s⁻¹·Pa⁻¹ to 2.69 × 10⁻¹¹ g·m⁻¹·s⁻¹·Pa⁻¹. The film exhibited exceptional antibacterial and antibiofilm properties, effectively inhibiting the growth of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, as well as superior UV-blocking capabilities. The BC-CP1/TEO₂ film efficiently preserved grapes for a 9-day storage period, and the film outperformed both pristine BC and conventional plastic packaging in maintaining grape quality.

Doğan [29] developed native bacterial cellulose (BC) films derived from kombucha pellicles, exploring their potential as active food packaging materials. The study utilized various plant infusions, including black tea, green tea, rosehip, coffee, and licorice, to produce BC films with distinct properties. Notably, green tea-based films exhibited significant antioxidant activity, with DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging capacities of 74.22% and 81.59%, respectively, attributed to their high phenolic content. Additionally, these films demonstrated antimicrobial properties against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus cereus, with green tea-based films showing the highest efficacy. The study highlighted that different plant infusions influenced the films’ mechanical and barrier properties, making these kombucha-derived BC films promising candidates for environmentally friendly, active food packaging solutions.

Carullo et al. [30] developed bio-nanocomposite coatings using bacterial cellulose nanocrystals (BCNCs) to improve the oxygen barrier properties of packaging films. BCNCs, derived through acid hydrolysis, were incorporated into a pullulan-based matrix applied to polyethylene terephthalate (PET) films. This significantly reduced the oxygen transmission rate (OTR) from 120 cm³/m²/day to 2 cm³/m²/day while preserving the films’ optical clarity and mechanical properties. These results suggest that BCNCs offer a sustainable alternative for high-performance food packaging, potentially replacing conventional plastic-based materials.

6. Enhancing the Properties of Bacterial Cellulose

BC possesses exceptional natural properties, making it a promising candidate for various applications. However, several techniques for modifying and enhancing BC properties have been explored to maximize its potential and expand its functionalities.

The cross-linking process led to a substantial increase in tensile strength, from 12.41 MPa in the non-crosslinked alginate film to 32.76 MPa in the crosslinked Alg-Ant-CBPE4 film, representing a 164% enhancement. This increase in mechanical strength is crucial for packaging applications in which durability and resistance to mechanical stress are essential. It also improved water vapor permeability (WVP), reducing it to 2.03 gm⁻¹s⁻¹pa⁻¹ [31].

Yang et al. [32] developed antibacterial aerogels using bacterial cellulose (BC) reinforced with carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and crosslinked with citric acid (CA). The crosslinking with CA significantly improved the aerogels’ mechanical strength, increasing the hardness from 1272 to 2676 N as the BC content was raised from 0% to 0.3%. The presence of CA also improved the aerogels’ water absorption capacity and maintained their structural integrity, even in moist environments. Furthermore, CA crosslinking led to a more organized microstructure with smaller pores, which enhanced the aerogels’ mechanical stability and water absorption capabilities. These crosslinked aerogels demonstrated antibacterial solid properties against Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella, effectively extending the shelf-life of fresh beef by maintaining lower pH levels and reducing total viable bacterial counts over seven days of storage.

The addition of nanoparticles may also enhance the packaging potential of BC. Miao et al. [33] developed a multifunctional bacterial cellulose (BC)-based film by incorporating curcumin-embedded Pickering emulsions stabilized with natural protein-polysaccharide hybrid nanoparticles (PPH NPs). The BC-PE-Cur films exhibited a reduced water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) and water vapor permeability (WVP), decreasing by approximately 90% compared to pure BC films. Moreover, curcumin provided the films with strong antibacterial properties, with the BC-PE-Cur 3:7 films showing a bacteriostatic rate of over 99% against E. coli and S. aureus. The films also demonstrated significant antioxidant capacity, with DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities increasing to 27% and 74%, respectively, making them highly effective in preventing lipid oxidation in packaged foods.

Zhou et al. [34] investigated the synthesis and characterization of bacterial cellulose nanofibers (BCNs) loaded with silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) through different pretreatment methods, including no treatment, sodium hydroxide activation, and TEMPO-mediated oxidation. The study found that TEMPO-mediated oxidation (O-BCNs/Ag) produced the most uniformly dispersed and smallest AgNPs, with an average diameter of 20.25 nm, compared to 27.91 nm for sodium hydroxide-activated BCNs and 35.07 nm for untreated BCNs. The O-BCNs/Ag nanoparticles demonstrated the highest silver content at 2.98 wt%, leading to superior antibacterial activity, particularly against E. coli O157, where the inhibition zone reached 10.8 mm. The study also highlighted the enhanced antioxidant properties of O-BCNs/Ag nanoparticles, with a DPPH radical scavenging activity of 22.78%, which was significantly higher than the other methods.

The production of hybrid materials has also enhanced BC’s properties. Khattak et al. [35] developed antibacterial hydrogels using bacterial cellulose (BC) combined with chitosan (Ch) and impregnated with silver sulfadiazine (SSD), which significantly enhanced the mechanical and antimicrobial properties of the resulting material. The study demonstrated that including SSD improved the hydrogel’s potential to inhibit the growth of Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria. The most effective hydrogel formulation, SBC4, showed a 99% reduction in bacterial viability after 5 h of contact, indicating an intense antibacterial activity.

Chen et al. [18] developed active films using a composite of chitosan (CS), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and BC integrated with ginger essential oil (GEO). Including BC and GEO significantly improved the films’ mechanical, barrier, and antimicrobial properties, making them suitable for packaging sea bass (Lateolabrax japonicus). The tensile strength of the films increased, with the CPB0.8 film achieving the highest strength at 11.80 MPa, indicating that crosslinking and interactions between CS, PVA, BC, and GEO created a more robust film structure. Incorporating GEO also improved the films’ water vapor permeability (WVP) and oxygen permeability (OP). WVP decreased by 19.74% and OP by 35% compared to the control film without BC and GEO. These improvements are crucial for extending the shelf-life of perishable products like fish. The CPB0.8 film also demonstrated superior antimicrobial activity, with complete inhibition of S. aureus and significant reductions in E. coli and P. fluorescens counts.

Agüero et al. [36] investigated the use of bacterial cellulose (BC) from kombucha-fermented spent coffee grounds (SCK) as a reinforcing antioxidant filler in polylactic acid (PLA)-based films. Incorporating SCK into the PLA matrix, plasticized with maleinized linseed oil (MLO), improved the films’ mechanical and thermal properties. The PLA-MLO/5 SCK formulation achieved a tensile strength of 31.2 MPa and a modulus of 1639.2 MPa, indicating enhanced stress transfer between the SCK particles and PLA. The films also showed significant antioxidant activity, with 37.08% DPPH radical inhibition, and maintained compostability, disintegrating under composting conditions. This study highlights the potential of BC from food waste to create sustainable, high-performance packaging materials.

Additionally, nanolayer coating application on BC may enhance its barrier potential. Dao et al. [37] developed a bacterial cellulose (BC)-zinc oxide (ZnO) nanocomposite film using a low-cost hydrothermal method. The ZnO nanolayer, with a thickness of approximately 45 nm, was coated on the 3D scaffold structures of BC derived from kombucha fermentation. The resulting BC-ZnO nanocomposite demonstrated significant antimicrobial properties, showing nearly 100% bactericidal and fungicidal effectiveness against Escherichia coli and Candida albicans, respectively. The nanocomposite was also tested in vivo for its antifungal activity on apples, where it successfully inhibited mold growth for six days, maintaining the freshness of the fruit. The ZnO nanolayer significantly reduced the pore size of the BC scaffold from 491.89 nm to 121.97 nm, enhancing its filtering efficiency. This allowed the BC-ZnO film to reduce the microbial population drastically, reducing E. coli from 10⁸ CFU/mL to a few thousand CFU/mL and C. albicans from 10⁷ CFU/mL to just a few cells per milliliter. These results suggest that BC-ZnO nanocomposites could serve as effective antimicrobial coatings for food packaging, offering protection and extended shelf life for perishable goods.

Frota et al. [38] developed a superhydrophobic coating for food packaging using bacterial cellulose nanofibrils (BCn) functionalized with silicon dioxide (SiO₂) and combined with beeswax (BW). The functionalization process significantly enhanced the hydrophobicity of BCn, resulting in a coating with a contact angle (CA) of 153° and a slip angle (SA) of 3°, indicating strong water repellency. The study highlighted that the BCn-SiO₂ coating effectively repelled liquid foods like honey, yogurt, and chocolate sauce without leaving residues. This is critical for reducing food waste by ensuring complete product drainage from packaging. The coatings demonstrated remarkable mechanical durability, maintaining superhydrophobicity even after multiple abrasion cycles and exposure to temperature variations. The incorporation of SiO₂ into the BCn structure provided increased thermal stability, with the onset of thermal degradation occurring at 245 °C for the functionalized material. The coating’s self-cleaning properties were confirmed by successfully removing silica sand particles, further validating its potential for practical food packaging applications.

7. Waste Use and Environmental Impact in BC Production

However, large-scale BC production faces significant economic challenges, primarily due to high costs and the need for more efficient processes. Traditional BC production relies on expensive culture media, such as Hestrin–Schramm (HS) medium, substantially increasing costs. Nonetheless, exploring agro-industrial waste and low-cost materials as alternative carbon sources for BC production presents a significant opportunity to reduce the environmental impact [39]. Studies have shown that waste materials like orange peel [40] and sugarcane bagasse [41] can provide sufficient nutrients for efficient BC production while mitigating the adverse environmental effects of improper disposal. Furthermore, as a biodegradable biopolymer, BC offers a promising solution to the global plastic waste crisis, providing an alternative to petroleum-derived polymers that persist in the environment.

In addition to its environmental advantages, using agro-industrial waste as a carbon source for the production of BC also offers economic benefits. Studies have shown that replacing traditional carbon sources with waste from the fruit juice industry or sugarcane byproducts can reduce BC production costs from 4–6 USD/kg to approximately 2–3 USD/kg. This makes BC production significantly more competitive compared to other biopolymers, such as polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), the production costs of which range from 5 to 10 USD/kg, depending on the scale of production and the raw materials used [26,39].

Regarding production time, bacterial cellulose has a relatively longer fermentation cycle than biopolymers such as PLA. The fermentation process for BC production can last from 7 to 14 days, depending on the cultivation conditions and the type of bioreactor used [42]. By contrast, PLA is produced through chemical polymerization, which can be completed in only 4–6 h [43]. Although production time is a limitation, new technologies are being developed to increase the efficiency of BC production on a larger scale. Continuous bioreactors and automated fermentation control processes have also shown the potential to reduce production time and increase productivity [44].

In terms of shelf-life, BC has excellent gas and moisture barrier properties, which contribute to preserving food for extended periods. Compared to PLA, which has a water vapor permeability of around 120 g/m²/day, BC has a significantly lower permeability of around 10–15 g/m²/day, depending on the processing conditions [45,46]. BC offers better moisture barrier properties, which can extend the shelf-life of packaged products, especially moisture-sensitive foods. BC maintains its structural integrity under proper storage conditions for long periods, similar to other biopolymers, such as PLA and PHA. An added advantage of BC is its ability to be functionalized with antimicrobial compounds, which can further extend the shelf-life of packaged foods [47].

Although production capacity is still limited compared to widely produced biopolymers such as PLA, BC’s scalability potential is increasing as larger capacity bioreactors and continuous fermentation techniques are implemented, allowing for a progressive increase in industrial production [48].

The application of BC in food packaging and other environmentally friendly materials is a significant stride toward reducing our reliance on non-biodegradable plastics. Its water retention properties, high mechanical strength, and biodegradability make it an excellent candidate for replacing packaging plastics, significantly reducing pollution and contributing to a cleaner environment [17].

Table 3 provides a comprehensive overview of BC production using different microorganisms and agro-industrial residues as substrates. The type of residue used, the microorganisms employed, and specific fermentation conditions influence BC productivity and final product characteristics. For example, the microorganism Gluconacetobacter entanii was used to produce BC from pecan shell residues, resulting in a productivity of 2.81 g/L at a production rate of 0.10 g/L/day. This production occurred under pH 3.5 and 30 °C fermentation over 28 days. Substrate preparation, including sonication and characterization of BC by SEM, FTIR, XRD, TGA, DSC, and XPS, showed its potential for applications in biocomposites for biomedical uses [49].

Another example is the production of BC using Gluconacetobacter xylinus from spruce wood hydrolysate, resulting in a productivity of 8.2 g/L and a production rate of 0.59 g/L/day under conditions of pH 5.0 and 30 °C for 12 to 14 days. Alkaline treatment was used to prepare the substrate, highlighting the material’s potential for biomedical applications [50].

The table also highlights the use of wine industry waste for the production of BC by Gluconacetobacter xylinus, resulting in a productivity of 6.56 g/L and a rate of 0.38 g/L/day. Fermentation occurred at pH 6.0 and 28 °C for 48 h, using corn liquor as a supplement. The characterization of BC by SEM, FTIR, XRD, TGA, and DMA demonstrated that the material has promising properties for several industrial applications [51].

Table 3. Bacterial cellulose production using different wastes: microorganisms, fermentation conditions, and results.

Microorganism	Bacterial Cellulose Production (g/L)	Productivity Rate (g/L day)	Used Waste	Fermentation Conditions (Temperature, pH, Time)	Substrate Preparation Method	Supplementation	BC Characterization	Potential Applications	Ref.
Gluconacetobacter entanii	2.81	0.10	Pecan nutshell	pH 3.5, 30 °C, 28 days	Sonication	-	SEM, FTIR, XRD, TGA, DSC, XPS	Biocomposites for biomedical applications	[49]
Gluconacetobacter sacchari	1.28	0.01	Dry olive mill	pH 4.5	Acidic hydrolysis	HS medium	SEM, FTIR, XRD	Biomedical applications	[52]
Gluconacetobacter xylinus	8.2	0.59	Spruce hydrolysate	pH 5.0, 30 °C, 12–14 days	Alkali treatment	-	-	Biomedical applications	[50]
Gluconacetobacter xylinus	6.56	0.38	Wine industry residue	pH 6.0, 28 °C, 48 h	Blending	Corn steep liquor	SEM, FTIR, XRD, TGA, DMA	-	[51]
Komagataeibacter rhaeticus MSCL 1463	6.9	0.69	Cheese whey	pH 4.0, 30 °C, 10 days	Enzymatic hydrolysis	Corn steep liquor	XRD, SEM	-	[53]
Acetobacter xylinus NCIM 2526	7.01	1.00	Sweet lime pulp	28.9 °C, pH 5.65, 7 days	Sun drying, autoclave	-	SEM, FTIR, XRD, DSC, TGA	Biomedical applications	[54]
Acetobacter xylinum ATCC 23767	2.66	0.44	Sugarcane bagasse, Moso bamboo, Corncob, Wheat straw, Rice straw	30 °C, 6 days	Alkali-catalyzed glycerol organosolv (ALGO) pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis	-	SEM, FTIR, XRD	Biomedical and cosmetics application	[55]
Kombucha SCOBY	-	-	Agricultural waste	RT, 15 days	Thermic treatment	Sucrose	SEM, FTIR, XRD, TGA, DSC	Food packaging	[56]
Komagataeibacter xylinus	5.68	0.81	Spent sulfite liquor	pH 5.5, 30 °C, 7 days.	Ultrafiltration	-	FTIR, SEC, SEM	Food packing	[57]
Gluconobacter oxydans MG2021 and Komagataeibacter hansenii GA2016	25.02% (w/w)	-	Bread waste hydrolysate	30 °C, pH 4.5, 14 days	Acid hydrolysis	-	FTIR, TGA, SEM, XRD	Packing applications	[58]
Komagataeibacter rhaeticus QK23	2.57	0.10	Asparagus peel waste	pH 4.5, 30 °C, 25 days.	Acid hydrolysis	-	FTIR, AFM, XRD	Food industry	[59]
Stenotrophomonas sp.	8.83	0.63	Banana peel waste	pH 7.0, 30 °C, 14 days	-	-	FTIR, TGA	Biomedical, food packing, cosmetics and electrical applications	[42]
Komagataeibacter intermedius	12.16	1.73	Jasminum sambac	pH 6.0, 30 °C, 7 days	Thermal extraction	Glucose	FTIR, XRD, FIB-SEM	Biomedical and food packing	[60]
Komagataeibacter intermedius	14.58	2.08	Camellia sinensis	pH 6.0, 30 °C, 7 days	Thermal extraction	Glucose	FIB-SEM, FTIR, XRD	Biomedical and food packing	[60]
Kombucha SCOBY	47.0	7.83	Soybean whey (SW)	pH 4.5, 28 °C, 6 days	Enzymatic hydrolysis	-	SEM, AFM, FTIR, XRD, TGA	Biomedical and paper industry	[61]
Kombucha SCOBY	83.0	13.83	Soybean hydrolysate (SH)	pH 4.5, 28 °C, 6 days	Enzymatic hydrolysis	-	SEM, AFM, FTIR, XRD, TGA	Biomedical and paper industry	[61]
Gluconacetobacter xylinus	6.13	0.77	Orange peel hydrolysate	30 °C, 8 days	Enzymatic hydrolysis	-	SEM, FTIR	Biomedical applications	[62]
Komagataeibacter xylinus	2.55	0.17	Pineapple core	RT, pH 4.0, 15 days	Thermal treatment	Glucose	SEM, FTIR, XRD, TGA, DSC	Biomedical applications	[63]
Achromobacter sp.	1.22	0.09	Mango peel waste (MPW)	28 °C, 14 days	Acid treatment	-	ATR-FTIR, XRD, SEM, HRTEM	Biomedical	[64]
Kombucha SCOBY	-	-	Spent coffee grounds (SCK)	25 °C, 30 days	Infusion preparation	Sucrose	SEM, TGA, DSC, DPPH	Food packing	[36]
Kombucha SCOBY	6.05	0.43	Kitchen waste (KW)	28 °C, 14 days	Enzymatic hydrolysis	-	SEM, Tensile tester	Medicine, food and textiles industries	[65]

Table 3. Bacterial cellulose production using different wastes: microorganisms, fermentation conditions, and results.

Microorganism	Bacterial Cellulose Production (g/L)	Productivity Rate (g/L day)	Used Waste	Fermentation Conditions (Temperature, pH, Time)	Substrate Preparation Method	Supplementation	BC Characterization	Potential Applications	Ref.
Gluconacetobacter entanii	2.81	0.10	Pecan nutshell	pH 3.5, 30 °C, 28 days	Sonication	-	SEM, FTIR, XRD, TGA, DSC, XPS	Biocomposites for biomedical applications	[49]
Gluconacetobacter sacchari	1.28	0.01	Dry olive mill	pH 4.5	Acidic hydrolysis	HS medium	SEM, FTIR, XRD	Biomedical applications	[52]
Gluconacetobacter xylinus	8.2	0.59	Spruce hydrolysate	pH 5.0, 30 °C, 12–14 days	Alkali treatment	-	-	Biomedical applications	[50]
Gluconacetobacter xylinus	6.56	0.38	Wine industry residue	pH 6.0, 28 °C, 48 h	Blending	Corn steep liquor	SEM, FTIR, XRD, TGA, DMA	-	[51]
Komagataeibacter rhaeticus MSCL 1463	6.9	0.69	Cheese whey	pH 4.0, 30 °C, 10 days	Enzymatic hydrolysis	Corn steep liquor	XRD, SEM	-	[53]
Acetobacter xylinus NCIM 2526	7.01	1.00	Sweet lime pulp	28.9 °C, pH 5.65, 7 days	Sun drying, autoclave	-	SEM, FTIR, XRD, DSC, TGA	Biomedical applications	[54]
Acetobacter xylinum ATCC 23767	2.66	0.44	Sugarcane bagasse, Moso bamboo, Corncob, Wheat straw, Rice straw	30 °C, 6 days	Alkali-catalyzed glycerol organosolv (ALGO) pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis	-	SEM, FTIR, XRD	Biomedical and cosmetics application	[55]
Kombucha SCOBY	-	-	Agricultural waste	RT, 15 days	Thermic treatment	Sucrose	SEM, FTIR, XRD, TGA, DSC	Food packaging	[56]
Komagataeibacter xylinus	5.68	0.81	Spent sulfite liquor	pH 5.5, 30 °C, 7 days.	Ultrafiltration	-	FTIR, SEC, SEM	Food packing	[57]
Gluconobacter oxydans MG2021 and Komagataeibacter hansenii GA2016	25.02% (w/w)	-	Bread waste hydrolysate	30 °C, pH 4.5, 14 days	Acid hydrolysis	-	FTIR, TGA, SEM, XRD	Packing applications	[58]
Komagataeibacter rhaeticus QK23	2.57	0.10	Asparagus peel waste	pH 4.5, 30 °C, 25 days.	Acid hydrolysis	-	FTIR, AFM, XRD	Food industry	[59]
Stenotrophomonas sp.	8.83	0.63	Banana peel waste	pH 7.0, 30 °C, 14 days	-	-	FTIR, TGA	Biomedical, food packing, cosmetics and electrical applications	[42]
Komagataeibacter intermedius	12.16	1.73	Jasminum sambac	pH 6.0, 30 °C, 7 days	Thermal extraction	Glucose	FTIR, XRD, FIB-SEM	Biomedical and food packing	[60]
Komagataeibacter intermedius	14.58	2.08	Camellia sinensis	pH 6.0, 30 °C, 7 days	Thermal extraction	Glucose	FIB-SEM, FTIR, XRD	Biomedical and food packing	[60]
Kombucha SCOBY	47.0	7.83	Soybean whey (SW)	pH 4.5, 28 °C, 6 days	Enzymatic hydrolysis	-	SEM, AFM, FTIR, XRD, TGA	Biomedical and paper industry	[61]
Kombucha SCOBY	83.0	13.83	Soybean hydrolysate (SH)	pH 4.5, 28 °C, 6 days	Enzymatic hydrolysis	-	SEM, AFM, FTIR, XRD, TGA	Biomedical and paper industry	[61]
Gluconacetobacter xylinus	6.13	0.77	Orange peel hydrolysate	30 °C, 8 days	Enzymatic hydrolysis	-	SEM, FTIR	Biomedical applications	[62]
Komagataeibacter xylinus	2.55	0.17	Pineapple core	RT, pH 4.0, 15 days	Thermal treatment	Glucose	SEM, FTIR, XRD, TGA, DSC	Biomedical applications	[63]
Achromobacter sp.	1.22	0.09	Mango peel waste (MPW)	28 °C, 14 days	Acid treatment	-	ATR-FTIR, XRD, SEM, HRTEM	Biomedical	[64]
Kombucha SCOBY	-	-	Spent coffee grounds (SCK)	25 °C, 30 days	Infusion preparation	Sucrose	SEM, TGA, DSC, DPPH	Food packing	[36]
Kombucha SCOBY	6.05	0.43	Kitchen waste (KW)	28 °C, 14 days	Enzymatic hydrolysis	-	SEM, Tensile tester	Medicine, food and textiles industries	[65]

Another notable microorganism, Komagataeibacter rhaeticus, was used to produce BC from whey, an abundant residue from the dairy industry. The productivity reached 6.9 g/L at a rate of 0.69 g/L/day under pH 4.0 and 30 °C conditions for 10 days. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the substrate, supplemented with corn liquor, resulted in BC, which was characterized by XRD and SEM and suitable for several industrial applications [53]. Another example is the production of BC using hydrolyzed orange peel residues with Gluconacetobacter xylinus, which reached a productivity of 6.13 g/L in 8 days under pH 5.5 and 30 °C. The resulting BC was characterized by SEM and FTIR, indicating its potential for biomedical applications [62]. The use of Kombucha SCOBY to produce BC from soybean hydrolysate also stands out, achieving exceptional productivity of 83 g/L and a production rate of 13.83 g/L/day. Fermentation conditions included pH 4.5 and 28 °C for 6 days. The characterization of BC by SEM, AFM, FTIR, XRD, and TGA revealed that the material has ideal properties for application in the biomedical and paper industries [61]. The table also shows the efficiency of Komagataeibacter intermedius in the production of BC from Camellia sinensis (green tea) residues, with a productivity of 14.58 g/L and a rate of 2.08 g/L/day. Fermentation was carried out at pH 6.0 and 30 °C for 7 days, and characterization by FIB-SEM, FTIR, and XRD suggested that the produced BC is suitable for applications in both the biomedical and food packaging industries [60].

These results underscore the importance of fermentation conditions and the types of waste used in BC production efficiency and properties. The feasibility of using agro-industrial waste as substrates for BC production is evident, and integrating these approaches into industrial processes can lead to more sustainable and economically viable BC production systems, offering innovative alternatives for replacing traditional plastic materials in various applications. The sustainable production of BC using industrial and agricultural waste is a promising research area that aims to reduce costs and minimize environmental impact. Several types of waste have been explored as substrates for BC production, resulting in more economical and environmentally friendly processes. Agricultural residues, such as peels and bagasse, are rich sources of carbon that can be converted into efficient substrates for BC production. For example, pineapple residues, rich in sugars and nutrients, have shown the potential to produce BC with good mechanical and barrier properties [66]. Sugarcane bagasse, an abundant byproduct of the sugar and ethanol industry, can also be hydrolyzed to release fermentable sugars, facilitating the production of BC with quality comparable to that obtained from traditional substrates [55].

In addition to agricultural residues, industrial residues, especially from the food industry, are also viable for BC production. Whey, a byproduct of the dairy industry, is a rich source of lactose that can be fermented to produce high-purity BC with good mechanical properties [8]. Waste from the beer production process, such as malt bagasse and residual yeast, can also be used as substrates, resulting in a more sustainable BC production process [67]. Another significant example is the use of black liquor, a byproduct of the pulp and paper industry. This residue contains a high concentration of organic compounds that can be converted into a substrate for BC production, resulting in a product with good structural and mechanical properties [68].

The efficiency of BC production from waste can be increased through the enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic residues, such as sugarcane bagasse and rice straw. This process releases fermentable sugars, increasing carbon availability for BC production. Depending on the characteristics of the waste and the cultivation conditions, both submerged fermentation and semi-solid fermentation are used for BC production from waste [69].

Recent studies exemplify the diversity and effectiveness of using waste in BC production. For example, using soybean waste as a substrate showed that the BC produced has good barrier properties and is suitable for food packaging [70]. Potato waste, rich in starch, has also been converted into a substrate for BC production, resulting in a product with high crystallinity and mechanical strength [71]. This can also contribute to environmental sustainability by utilizing byproducts that would otherwise be discarded. Furthermore, integrating BC production into a circular economy approach, where waste from one process is used as input for another, can create more sustainable and economically viable production systems [72].

When comparing the environmental footprint of BC with other biodegradable or bio-based alternatives, such as PLA and PHA, BC demonstrates significant advantages. While both PLA and PHA are biodegradable, their production often requires intensive energy inputs and agricultural feedstocks, which can lead to higher greenhouse gas emissions. By contrast, BC can be produced from various agro-industrial residues, minimizing the need for dedicated crops and reducing the overall carbon footprint of its production process. Furthermore, BC’s ability to biodegrade in natural environments without the need for industrial composting facilities, often required for PLA, positions it as a more environmentally friendly option. Additionally, the life cycle of BC is typically shorter in terms of environmental degradation, offering quicker integration back into ecosystems compared to some bio-based alternatives that may leave persistent residues. Therefore, BC offers a more sustainable solution across its entire life cycle, from production through to end-of-life disposal.

8. Challenges and Limitations for the Use of BC as Food Packaging

Despite the numerous advantages and potential applications of bacterial cellulose (BC) in food packaging, technical, economic, and regulatory challenges remain to be overcome for its widespread commercial adoption.

8.1. Technical Challenges for Using BC in Packaging Materials

The utilization of bacterial cellulose as a material for food packaging encounters several technical challenges that need to be overcome to guarantee its feasibility on an industrial scale. While the production of BC in laboratory environments is well established, the transition to large-scale production poses complexities. Stringent control of large-scale fermentation is essential to ensure the consistency and uniformity of the final product, both of which are crucial for its suitability in food packaging. Any variations in fermentation conditions, such as pH, temperature, and aeration, can lead to alterations in the microstructure of BC, directly impacting its mechanical properties, barrier properties, and biodegradability [69].

The engineering of composite materials poses a significant challenge. BC may have limitations in mechanical and barrier properties when used alone, particularly against gases and water vapor. Therefore, it is essential to integrate BC with other materials, such as biodegradable polymers or functional coatings, to develop packaging that meets the stringent requirements of the food industry [73]. However, there are technical issues related to the compatibility between BC and other materials and the maintenance of desired properties after combining, which are still in the research and development phase. The creation of composite materials incorporating advanced technologies, such as antimicrobial coatings and smart sensors, represents a promising field, but it requires innovative solutions to address adhesion, uniformity, and durability issues [74,75].

In addition, integrating BC as a packaging material into industrial processes necessitates a comprehensive review of the entire production chain. The adjustment of equipment to handle BC and its combination with other materials may necessitate considerable investments. Standardizing production processes poses a challenge as variations in the final material’s characteristics can arise from different bacterial strains and cultivation substrates. It is important to consider the interaction between bacterial cellulose and food components. Bacterial cellulose has a nanofibrillar structure that enables it to retain high amounts of water, which can benefit certain purposes. However, it may also present challenges when contacting high moisture or lipophilic compounds in food. The absorption of water by bacterial cellulose can harm its barrier properties, potentially compromising its ability to protect against the permeation of gas and water vapor. This protection is essential for preserving perishable foods [76].

Furthermore, acidic or basic food components have the potential to affect the bacterial cellulose matrix, leading to possible changes in its structural stability and performance. For instance, exposure to organic acids in foods could partially break down cellulose fibers, diminishing the material’s mechanical strength. Similarly, interaction with lipids may pose compatibility challenges. Since BC is hydrophilic, it might not effectively prevent oils and fats from migrating unless modified or coated with other materials [77].

The industrial implementation of BC as a large-scale packaging material presents significant challenges, especially in modifying existing machinery. Adapting processing equipment to accommodate the unique characteristics of this biomaterial is crucial, as BC’s distinct rheological and mechanical properties differ from those of synthetic polymers. This may require reconfiguring extrusion, molding, and coating processes in industrial settings. Equipment typically used in traditional industrial processes for materials like polyethylene or polypropylene may not be well suited for handling bacterial cellulose without significant modifications. The viscosity and consistency of bacterial cellulose pulp can present challenges in pumping and extrusion systems, where consistent and continuous flow is crucial [78]. BC’s high water retention capacity also requires adjustments to drying and molding processes to achieve the desired strength and stiffness properties without compromising its structural integrity.

Additionally, producing BC films and sheets frequently used in packaging may call for new lamination and coating techniques to preserve the material’s gas and moisture barrier properties [79]. The integration of additives, functional coatings, or the amalgamation of BC with other materials on current production lines may require investments in new machinery types or modifications to accommodate hybrid processes. Energy efficiency is a key factor to consider in industrial processes utilizing BC. The production of BC can be energy-intensive, particularly during stages like fermentation and drying. As a result, optimizing energy efficiency through machinery adaptation is crucial. This can be achieved by utilizing technologies that reduce energy consumption, such as heat recovery systems or renewable energy sources.

The technical challenges already mentioned include scaling up BC production for large-scale commercial applications in food packaging, which faces several barriers that must be overcome. In the laboratory, BC production is typically carried out in relatively small volumes, ranging from 500 mL to 5 L, where fermentation conditions are easier to control. However, bioreactors can range from 1000 to 10,000 L or more in industrial settings, creating challenges in maintaining homogeneous fermentation conditions. Studies indicate that variations of just 0.5 pH units or 2 °C in temperature can significantly change BC’s microstructure and mechanical properties, such as a reduction of up to 30% in tensile strength if ideal conditions are not maintained [48,58].

Furthermore, fermentation productivity in small-scale setups can reach 6 to 8 g/L of BC, while in larger bioreactors, this productivity often drops to 3 to 5 g/L due to limitations in oxygenation and nutrient control. However, automated bioreactors with sensors to monitor pH and dissolved oxygen can increase productivity by 20–30%, enabling more efficient production even at larger volumes. Optimized aeration and continuous temperature control ensure product uniformity, minimizing batch-to-batch variations [80,81].

Another major challenge is related to adapting the production infrastructure. Machines typically used for processing synthetic polymers like polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) are not suitable for handling the unique rheological properties of BC. Bacterial cellulose retains up to 99% of its weight in water, making it significantly more difficult to process than plastic polymers, which have less than 1% moisture content. This high water retention also impacts pumping and extrusion systems, which must be modified to accommodate BC’s characteristics. Studies suggest that these adjustments may increase initial operational costs by 15–20%, but in the long term, these modifications pay off through greater energy efficiency and better processing yields [48,82].

Due to its high moisture content, large-scale drying of BC is another energy-intensive process. Heat recovery technologies or multi-stage drying can reduce these costs by up to 30%, making the process more efficient and sustainable. After drying, BC retains its excellent barrier properties, such as a water vapor permeability of 10–15 g/m²/day, which is essential for preserving perishable foods.

The economic viability of large-scale BC production depends on reducing input costs. Currently, the production costs of BC range from 4 to 6 USD/kg. Still, research shows that using agro-industrial waste as a carbon source can reduce these costs to 2–3 USD/kg, making BC production more competitive with traditional polymers like plastic. For example, waste from fruit juice production or by-products from the sugar industry can be used as a carbon source during fermentation, significantly lowering input costs while promoting process sustainability. However, these processes still need to be optimized to ensure that the quality of the produced BC is not compromised, which requires further technological development [83].

8.2. Economic Aspects for the Application of BC

The global bacterial cellulose market is booming. In 2023, the market value of BC was estimated at approximately USD 608.71 million and is expected to reach USD 1396.94 million by 2030. This growth represents a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 12.6% between 2024 and 2030, as illustrated in the graph. This growth is driven by BC’s versatility, which finds application in various sectors such as textiles, cosmetics, food, and biomedical devices (Profshare Market Research, 2024).

Large-scale BC production using methods that increase production from laboratory cultures is being intensively researched, which increases the potential supply in the market. BC production’s economic viability depends on production costs and increased demand in emerging and established markets [84]. However, despite the apparent environmental advantages, large-scale BC production still faces challenges, such as optimizing cultivation conditions to maximize production efficiency and minimize resource use [48]. Using waste as a carbon source also presents a significant opportunity to reduce production costs by adding value to an underutilized byproduct.

In addition, BC’s versatility, with applications in biomedicine, biodegradable packaging, and tissue engineering, increases its market value, making its production economically attractive. However, BC’s competitiveness relative to other materials still depends on technological advances that allow for the reduction of production costs and the increase in scale. The industrialization of BC production requires investment in infrastructure and research to develop more efficient bacterial strains and more economical and sustainable cultivation processes [85].

Economic feasibility analyses show that despite the high initial investment required for constructing large-scale BC production facilities, automation and using waste as raw materials can significantly reduce operating costs, making these investments viable in the long term [85]. BC production is capital-intensive, but innovations in production processes and low-cost substrates could make its production economically viable, exploiting BC’s vast potential from an environmental and economic perspective.

BC is a highly versatile biomaterial applicable in various scientific sectors, including papermaking, electronics, and biomedical devices (BMD) [86,87]. Population growth and technological advances are additional factors driving the market. The continued development of more efficient and sustainable production methods and expanding BC in new applications are essential to unlocking BC’s full commercial potential. Technological advances are being developed to monitor and adjust these conditions in real time, using automated bioreactors and high-precision sensors. However, for BC to establish itself as a viable alternative to other biomaterials, such as PLA and PHA, innovations are needed that allow for more efficient and larger-scale production without compromising environmental sustainability or the quality of the final product.

8.3. Regulatory and Consumer Acceptance Challenges

The adoption of nanocellulose, including bacterial cellulose, in food packaging shows promise due to its exceptional barrier properties, moisture retention, and antimicrobial activity. However, regulatory and acceptance challenges persist. Nanocellulose, while biodegradable and renewable, must comply with stringent food safety regulations. Owing to the low toxicity of BC, it may comply with the European Union’s Regulation (EC) No 10/2011, which outlines specific requirements for polymers in food contact, emphasizing that they may not present harm or release toxic compounds into foods [88]. Also, Regulation (EC) No 1935/2004 mandates that materials intended for food contact must not transfer their constituents to food in quantities that could endanger human health or bring about unacceptable changes in the composition of the food, in which BC tends to outperform plastics that may be harmful to humans [89].

Though BC has presented low regulatory concerns, the regulation of nanomaterials in food varies significantly between countries. The European Union and Switzerland have specific provisions in their legislation, while other nations rely on non-binding guidelines. Mandatory labeling of nanomaterials is an essential advancement in the EU. However, countries like the United States and Brazil still lack specific regulations for nanotechnology-based products [90].

Regulatory approval for using bacterial cellulose (BC) in food packaging faces complex challenges, as it requires rigorous demonstration of its safety, efficacy, and compliance with market-specific standards. Regulations vary significantly across regions and countries, with distinct criteria that may include testing for toxicity, biodegradability, and interaction with food. This regulatory diversity complicates the global introduction of BC and can result in high costs and lengthy approval times, creating additional hurdles for manufacturers and developers.

In addition to regulatory barriers, consumer acceptance plays a vital role in the success of new packaging materials. While BC offers clear benefits regarding sustainability and safety, public perception can be influenced by several factors, including unfamiliarity with the material and concerns about its durability and effectiveness compared to traditional plastics. To overcome these barriers, it is essential to educate consumers about the environmental advantages of BC, such as its biodegradability and lower environmental impact compared to conventional materials. Awareness campaigns and transparency about production processes and safety certifications can facilitate market adoption of the material. However, the perception of higher costs associated with BC packaging can be a significant barrier to its widespread acceptance. Many consumers may be reluctant to pay a premium for sustainable packaging, especially in markets where awareness of environmental issues is still emerging. Overcoming this resistance requires effective marketing strategies highlighting BC’s ecological benefits and long-term value, such as potential food waste reduction and environmental impact. Collaborating with stakeholders such as governments and NGOs to promote tax incentives or subsidies for sustainable products can also be an effective strategy to reduce the impact of cost on consumer acceptance.

9. Perspectives and Conclusions

Bacterial cellulose (BC) presents a promising material for food packaging applications owing to its unique properties and environmental benefits. The bibliometric analysis revealed a significant increase in publications on BC in recent years, underscoring the growing interest and importance of this topic within the scientific community. Key authors and institutions identified in the analysis have substantially contributed to advancing knowledge and technologies associated with BC production and application.

Research on BC has primarily focused on improving production scalability and exploring new methods to incorporate additional functionalities, such as antimicrobial properties. Advances in genetic engineering and optimization of fermentation conditions hold the potential to reduce costs and enhance the efficiency of BC production, making it a viable alternative to conventional packaging materials. Moreover, integrating BC into the circular economy by utilizing agricultural and industrial waste as substrates promotes environmental sustainability and offers an economical solution for BC production. The robust collaborations between researchers from different countries identified in the collaboration network analysis suggest a global and multidisciplinary approach to overcoming the technical and economic challenges associated with BC.

BC has immense potential to revolutionize the food packaging industry. However, to solidify its position as a sustainable and innovative solution, it is essential to continue investing in research and development that enhances its properties and enables large-scale production. Future research directions should focus on discovering new waste utilization methods, optimizing processes, and developing composite materials to maximize BC’s positive impact on the industry and the environment.