Processes

19 pages, 1304 KB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Carbon, High-Efficiency, and High-Quality Equipment Selection for Milling Process Based on New Quality Productivity Orientation

by Wenyue Qu and Zhongjin Ni

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2935; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092935 (registering DOI) - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

Selecting appropriate milling equipment is an important means to reduce carbon emissions and improve the efficiency of part-machining processes, as the process of machining the same part on different milling machines varies greatly. Traditional milling machine selection approaches only involve a static analysis [...] Read more.

Selecting appropriate milling equipment is an important means to reduce carbon emissions and improve the efficiency of part-machining processes, as the process of machining the same part on different milling machines varies greatly. Traditional milling machine selection approaches only involve a static analysis of their advantages and disadvantages without considering the dynamic changes in the production process, making them difficult to adapt to the requirements of the new era. To solve this problem, we establish a milling machine selection model based on the new quality productivity (NQP) concept; propose a calculation method considering carbon emissions, efficiency, and quality (expressed as surface roughness) in the production process; and quantitatively analyze the process objectives of different milling machines according to the changes in the machining process. The spindle speed, feed rate, cutting width, and cutting depth are taken as the optimization variables, and the cutting parameters are optimized using the egret swarm algorithm (ESA) to obtain the Pareto frontier solutions providing low-carbon and high efficiency process parameters. The method was verified through a plane milling example. After ESA optimization, the processing time was increased by 5.6%, the surface roughness accuracy was improved by 12.9%, and the carbon emissions were reduced by 13.1%, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence Technologies and Methods for Green Manufacturing)

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26 pages, 2688 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Investigation of the Influencing Parameters of the H₂O₂-Assisted Photochemical Treatment of Waste Liquid from the Hydrothermal Carbonization Process in a Microreactor Flow System

by Aleksandra Petrovič, Tjaša Cenčič Predikaka, Silvo Hribernik and Andreja Nemet

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2934; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092934 (registering DOI) - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

Due to its complex composition and toxicity, the waste liquid from hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) poses a serious environmental challenge that must be addressed before disposal. In this study, the photochemical treatment of HTC liquid in a microreactor flow system was investigated. The effects [...] Read more.

Due to its complex composition and toxicity, the waste liquid from hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) poses a serious environmental challenge that must be addressed before disposal. In this study, the photochemical treatment of HTC liquid in a microreactor flow system was investigated. The effects of wavelength, the presence of atmospheric oxygen, oxidizing agent (H₂O₂) and catalyst (FeSO₄), residence time and pH on the efficiency of the photo-treatment were investigated. In addition, the influence of the addition of deep eutectic solvent (DES) on photo-treatment was studied. The results showed that the photochemical treatment was more efficient at 365 nm than at 420 nm, and that the acidic conditions gave better results than the basic ones. UV₃₆₅ treatment in the presence of H₂O₂ (at a dosage of 1 vol%) resulted in removal efficiencies of 31.6% for COD, 17.6% for TOC, 16.9% for NH₄-N and 17.2% for PO₄-P. The addition of FeSO₄ caused coagulation/flocculation effects, but improved phosphorus removal. The addition of DES resulted in slight discolouration of the liquid and proved unsuccessful in COD removal. The GC-MS analysis and 3D-EEM spectra showed significant changes in the fate of organics and in the fluorescence intensity of aromatic proteins and humic acid-like substances. Photochemical treatment in a microreactor flow system in the presence of H₂O₂ under the selected operating conditions reduced the content of organics and nutrients in the HTC liquid, but the process liquids still showed toxic effects on the organisms V. fischeri and Daphnia magna. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical and Microbiological Analyses of Wastes, Effluents and Materials)

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28 pages, 4258 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Validation of a Simultaneous HPLC Stability-Indicating Method for Atorvastatin and Apigenin in a Novel SMEDDS Formulation Using Quality by Design (QbD) Approach

by Sarmad Abdulabbas Kashmar, Reem Abou Assi, Muqdad Alhijjaj and Siok Yee Chan

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2933; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092933 (registering DOI) - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

Atorvastatin (ATV), a widely used statin, exhibits both cholesterol-lowering and anti-inflammatory effects. Apigenin (API), a natural flavonoid, also demonstrates potent anti-inflammatory activity. This study aimed to develop and validate a novel stability-indicating reverse-phase HPLC method for the simultaneous quantification of ATV and API [...] Read more.

Atorvastatin (ATV), a widely used statin, exhibits both cholesterol-lowering and anti-inflammatory effects. Apigenin (API), a natural flavonoid, also demonstrates potent anti-inflammatory activity. This study aimed to develop and validate a novel stability-indicating reverse-phase HPLC method for the simultaneous quantification of ATV and API in standard solutions and dual ATV–API-loaded self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS). Quality by Design (QbD) approach was used to define the quality target product profile (QTPP), critical quality attributes (CQAs), and identify critical method parameters (CMPs) through risk assessment. A central composite design (CCD) evaluated the effects of organic phase ratio, buffer pH, and flow rate on chromatographic responses, including retention time, tailing factor, and resolution. Separation was achieved using an Agilent Eclipse XDB C-18 column (5 µm, 4.6 × 150 min) with a mobile phase of acetonitrile and 0.1 M ammonium acetate buffer (pH 7.0) in a 40:60 (v/v) ratio, UV detection at 266 nm, and a flow rate of 0.4 mL/ min. The method met ICH and USP (2021) validation criteria, showing excellent linearity (0.1–10 µg/mL), precision, accuracy, and specificity. No interference from SMEDDS excipients or degradation products during stability studies was observed. This validated method offers a reliable tool for formulation development and routine analysis of ATV and API combinations Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Carriers Production Processes for Innovative Human Applications (2nd Edition))

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22 pages, 8367 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coupling Changes in Pressure and Flow Velocity in Oil Pipelines Supported by Structures

by Chengbin Zhang, Zhaoyang Han, Bin Ma, Zhaofeng Yang, Yinshan Liu, Yaoqiang Hu, Zhenni Wang and Kejie Zhao

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2932; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092932 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

To investigate the time-varying influence of oil viscosity and water content on flow behavior in crossing pipelines, we developed a three-dimensional finite element/CFD model using advanced simulation software with fluid dynamics capabilities. Simulations were performed under varying viscosity and water-cut conditions, and the [...] Read more.

To investigate the time-varying influence of oil viscosity and water content on flow behavior in crossing pipelines, we developed a three-dimensional finite element/CFD model using advanced simulation software with fluid dynamics capabilities. Simulations were performed under varying viscosity and water-cut conditions, and the analyses covered fluid velocity, pressure distribution, and secondary flow characteristics. The results show clear quantitative trends: in the horizontal span, the stabilized centerline velocity reached 2.46 m/s (+23.0% versus the 2.00 m/s inlet). At Node 10, increasing viscosity from 0.306 to 0.603 Pa·s reduced the mean pressure by 11.2 kPa (−11.2% relative to a 0.10 MPa baseline), and a further increase to 1.185 Pa·s produced an additional 4.5 kPa (−4.5%) drop. At Node 1, the low-viscosity case yielded a centerline velocity 1.1× higher than the high-viscosity case (+10.0%). Consistent with these observations, higher viscosity and water cut decreased the average flow velocity and lengthened the duration of pressure fluctuations. These findings provide quantitative insight into the dynamic behavior of multiphase flow and offer a basis for understanding fluid–structure interaction phenomena in crude oil pipeline transport systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Processes and Systems)

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12 pages, 1185 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Exogenous N-Acylated-L-Homoserine Lactones on the Remediation of Chromium-Contaminated Soil by Shewanella purefaciens

by Xusheng Zheng, Chenglong Zheng, Shufang Zhou and Dexun Zou

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2931; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092931 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

Microbial remediation of chromium-contaminated soil through extracellular electron transfer is an economical and environmentally friendly strategy. Exogenous quorum sensing (QS) signaling molecules could facilitate the process of electron transport. However, it remains unclear whether regulating QS could enhance the microbial remediation effect. In [...] Read more.

Microbial remediation of chromium-contaminated soil through extracellular electron transfer is an economical and environmentally friendly strategy. Exogenous quorum sensing (QS) signaling molecules could facilitate the process of electron transport. However, it remains unclear whether regulating QS could enhance the microbial remediation effect. In this study, exogenous N-acylated-L-homoserine lactones (AHLs) were added for the remediation of Cr(VI)-contaminated soil by S. putrefaciens. Various AHLs such as C8-HSL, C10-HSL, 3OC8-HSL, 3OC10-HSL and 3OC12-HSL were detected in the remediation, with the concentrations of 5.91 ng/L, 1.09 ng/L, 4.10 ng/L, 2.29 ng/L and 24.51 ng/L. The addition of C10-HSL and 3OC12-HSL significantly promoted the Cr(VI) reduction rates by 11.25% and 9.20%. There were also various AHLs in the Cr(VI) reduction by indigenous microorganisms. The AHLs species measured and their concentrations were C8-HSL (5.05 ng/L), C10-HSL (3.27 ng/L), C12-HSL (0.11 ng/L), 3OC8-HSL (0.11 ng/L), 3OC10-HSL (0.05 ng/L), and 3OC12-HSL (2.92 ng/L). Relative to the untreated control, supplementation with C8-HSL, C12-HSL, and 3OC12-HSL produced significant enhancements in the Cr(VI) reduction rates by 4.10%, 3.05%, and 2.24%, respectively (p < 0.05). Comparing the effects of AHL on the remediation by S. putrefaciens and indigenous microorganisms, it could be found that C10-HSL enhanced the remediation effect by increasing the reduction rates of S. putrefaciens, and 3OC12-HSL enhanced the remediation effect by increasing the reduction rates of indigenous microorganisms. This study introduces a distinctive pathway for the promotion of the microbial remediation effect and contributes to further understanding the communication mechanism between exogenous and indigenous microorganisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental and Green Processes)

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23 pages, 489 KB

Open AccessArticle

Solving the Scheduling Problem in the Electrical Panel Board Manufacturing Industry Using a Hybrid Atomic Orbital Search Optimization Algorithm

by Marichelvam Kadarkarainadar Marichelvam, Gurusamy Ayyavoo, Parthasarathy Manimaran and Ömür Tosun

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2930; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092930 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

Efficient scheduling is critical for the success of any organization. Researchers have proposed numerous strategies for addressing various scheduling problems. The hybrid flow shop (HFS) scheduling is a complex and NP-hard problem that arises in many manufacturing and service industries. This work introduces [...] Read more.

Efficient scheduling is critical for the success of any organization. Researchers have proposed numerous strategies for addressing various scheduling problems. The hybrid flow shop (HFS) scheduling is a complex and NP-hard problem that arises in many manufacturing and service industries. This work introduces an optimization technique that utilizes atomic orbitals to address issues in HFS scheduling. Our objective is to reduce makespan (Cmax). Makespan minimization is critical for improving productivity and resource utilization. The standard atomic orbital search optimization algorithm (AOSOA) is hybridized with constructive heuristics to enhance solution quality. The scheduling problem of an electrical panel board manufacturing industry is solved using the hybrid AOSOA (HAOSOA). The results were better than those previously reported. A variety of random test situations of varying sizes and configurations were devised to assess the efficacy of the suggested algorithm. The proposed algorithm’s outcomes were compared against well-known algorithms discussed in the literature. Friedman and Wilcoxon test results indicate that the proposed methodology improves the solution quality in each test instance compared to all the metaheuristics used for comparison. The performance of the proposed algorithm is also evaluated using benchmark problems from the literature. In the first test, the algorithm has a rank value of 1, indicating it performs better than each of the comparing algorithms. In the second test, it is able to find the best makespan for 65 of the 77 problems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Manufacturing Processes and Systems)

33 pages, 1929 KB

Open AccessReview

AI-Based Surrogate Models for the Food and Drink Manufacturing Industry: A Comprehensive Review

by Emmanuel Lwele, Alex Shenfield and Carlos Eduardo da Silva

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2929; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092929 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

Surrogate models provide virtual representations that mirror physical objects or processes, serving distinct purposes in simulations and digital transformation. This review article examines how integrating surrogate modelling with artificial intelligence (AI) techniques can facilitate the iterative development of surrogate models and identify instances [...] Read more.

Surrogate models provide virtual representations that mirror physical objects or processes, serving distinct purposes in simulations and digital transformation. This review article examines how integrating surrogate modelling with artificial intelligence (AI) techniques can facilitate the iterative development of surrogate models and identify instances where additional data acquisition is necessary to enhance the performance of a surrogate model. This demonstrates the potential of combining AI with surrogate modelling in addressing some of the key challenges in the food and drink manufacturing industry. The paper also provides an accessible examination of AI and surrogate modelling in the food and drink manufacturing industry, offering a summary of current applications and advancements within the field. The key areas addressed by this article include the application of AI and ML in process control, prediction, and modelling for food manufacturing, as well as the advantages and limitations of AI-based surrogate modelling (SM), among other issues addressed. Based on the literature reviewed herein, AI-based surrogate models can be employed to optimise production processes and reduce the need for extensive physical prototyping in the food and drink manufacturing industry. This review emphasises AI-based surrogate modelling techniques tailored for complex food processing systems and distinguishes itself by bridging method-specific insights with practical industrial relevance. Additionally, this article reviews challenges and limitations in the food and drink manufacturing industry and the application of surrogate modelling, along with future directions for research in this rapidly evolving field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Control of Complex and Intelligent Systems)

17 pages, 1772 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Fermentation With and Without the Addition of Carrots on the Total Antioxidant Capacity of White and Red Cabbage

by Małgorzata Rak, Grzegorz Bartosz and Izabela Sadowska-Bartosz

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2928; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092928 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

Cabbage is one of the most popular vegetables all over the world, with white cabbage generally being more popular than red cabbage. This study aimed at a comparison of the antioxidant properties of fresh and fermented white and red cabbage. Total phenolic content, [...] Read more.

Cabbage is one of the most popular vegetables all over the world, with white cabbage generally being more popular than red cabbage. This study aimed at a comparison of the antioxidant properties of fresh and fermented white and red cabbage. Total phenolic content, the content of anthocyanins and carotenoids, and the Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) assayed by ABTS^• scavenging, DPPH^• scavenging, FRAP, and ORAC of fresh white and red cabbage, fermented white and red cabbage (sauerkraut), and sauerkraut juice were compared. The TAC of fresh and fermented red cabbage, and of red sauerkraut juice (110.3 ± 8.9, 47.4 ± 4.6 and 48.9 ± 5.7 mmol Trolox equivalents/kg, respectively) was significantly higher than the TAC of fresh and fermented white cabbage and white sauerkraut juice (5.1 ± 0.2, 7.9 ± 0.9 and 6.6 ± 0.9 mmol TE/kg, respectively, when assayed by ORAC). The TAC of white sauerkraut and white sauerkraut juice could be elevated by fermentation with 20% of black carrots (to 16.4 ± 1.2 and 10.5 ± 0.8 mmol TE/kg, respectively) but the TAC of red sauerkraut and red sauerkraut juice was diminished by a mixture of either orange or black carrots, which are of lower anthocyanin content than the red cabbage (41.8 ± 3.0 and 29.2 ± 3.1 mmol TE/kg, respectively). These results may justify the promotion of the broad consumption of red cabbage, both fresh and fermented, and encourage the usage of red cabbage as a promising material for functional foods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation and Utilization of Antioxidant Activity in Food Products)

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15 pages, 1929 KB

Open AccessArticle

Inverters That Mimic a Synchronous Condenser to Improve Voltage Stability in Power System

by Yang Yang, Zaijun Wu, Xiangjun Quan, Junjie Xiong, Zijing Wan and Zetao Wei

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2927; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092927 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

The shift to renewable energy generation increases risks of frequency and voltage instability. This transition can cause significant voltage and frequency fluctuations during load changes, generation interruptions, and grid faults. One potential solution is the deployment of synchronous condensers to mitigate these issues; [...] Read more.

The shift to renewable energy generation increases risks of frequency and voltage instability. This transition can cause significant voltage and frequency fluctuations during load changes, generation interruptions, and grid faults. One potential solution is the deployment of synchronous condensers to mitigate these issues; however, this approach may also increase operational and maintenance costs. To address this limitation, this paper proposes a method called the virtual synchronous condenser (VSCon) that enables renewable energy systems such as PV-solar energy systems or wind farms to emulate the behavior of synchronous condensers. Unlike traditional VSGs with simplified models, VSCon uses the mathematical equivalent circuit of a real synchronous condenser. This enables sub-transient and inertial behavior. Voltage support improves by adjusting sub-transient reactance, and frequency support enhances by tuning inertia and damping coefficients, thereby enhancing the local voltage and frequency stability. The proposed approach has been validated through case studies, demonstrating both its effectiveness and practicality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Power Converter in Integrated Energy Storage Management)

20 pages, 1508 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Energy Integration on Safety Indexes of Suspension PVC Production Process

by Antonio Mendivil-Arrieta, Juan Manuel Diaz-Pérez and Ángel Darío González-Delgado

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2926; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092926 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is the third most widely produced plastic on an industrial scale, due to its diverse applications and physicochemical properties. Its production through suspension polymerization presents significant safety challenges due to the handling of hazardous substances. To assess the impact of [...] Read more.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is the third most widely produced plastic on an industrial scale, due to its diverse applications and physicochemical properties. Its production through suspension polymerization presents significant safety challenges due to the handling of hazardous substances. To assess the impact of energy integration on process risks, the inherent safety analysis was implemented to determine the characteristic hazards of PVC suspension production. The methodology’s indicators were quantified by reviewing databases, literature, and safety data sheets, considering process steps such as vinyl chloride monomer recovery, PVC purification, and drying. The results revealed that the PVC production process under energy integration conditions is intrinsically unsafe, with a total inherent safety index (ISI) of 34. The chemical component would contribute 19 points, with VCM being the main chemical risk given its flammable and carcinogenic nature, contributing a value of 15, along with the heat released by the reactions. Process safety would contribute 15 points, associated with hazardous equipment such as furnaces, burners, and dryers, as well as risks related to inventories and similar plant accidents. To improve process safety, it is recommended to reduce VCM inventories, optimize operating conditions, and implement advanced control systems for possible accidental releases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 2nd Edition of Innovation in Chemical Plant Design)

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24 pages, 3383 KB

Open AccessArticle

Piloting for Scale-Up—An Ancient Technology Only for Non-Chemical Engineering Trained Investors

by Jessica Lütge, Axel Schmidt, Dirk Köster and Jochen Strube

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2925; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092925 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

Investors demand risk minimization references or at least demonstrator plant operations that are scaled down by a factor of about 25 times less than the manufacturing scale. This causes increased investments of about 30% and a time delay of about 3–5 years. Nevertheless, [...] Read more.

Investors demand risk minimization references or at least demonstrator plant operations that are scaled down by a factor of about 25 times less than the manufacturing scale. This causes increased investments of about 30% and a time delay of about 3–5 years. Nevertheless, modern process simulation studies based on experimental model parameter determination at a reduced laboratory scale and process model validation by mini-plant operations with risk assessment studies based on a statistically sound quality by design (QbD) approach should be able to substitute existing methods with less effort in terms of time and cost. This approach is used for a risk assessment study based on an industrial-scale simulated moving bed chromatography separation of m- and p-isomers, including potential enrichment cycles of the simulated moving bed’s (SMB) internal desorbent and the corresponding raffinate and extract distillation columns, and well-documented experimental literature data. The results quantify potential risks within probability ranges for investor decisions quite sufficiently. The benefits of ROI across various annual capacity scales and product magnitudes are evident through reductions of about 30% regarding investment and 3–8 years in terms of time to market, which should motivate the desire to implement these innovative methods more strategically in industrial daily work instead of piloting demonstrator-scale construction and operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Processes and Systems)

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17 pages, 3460 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Bioethylene Production from Lignocellulosic Bioethanol: Performance of Zeolitic Catalysts and Mechanistic Insights

by Carolina Mónica Mendieta, María Fernanda Zalazar, Laura Gabriela Covinich, Gerardo Fabián Santori, Fernando Esteban Felissia and María Cristina Area

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2924; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092924 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

Producing second-generation (2G) bioethylene through the dehydration of 2G bioethanol is a challenge, requiring the effective use of catalysts as an alternative to fossil-based ethylene production. This work evaluates the production of bioethylene from the catalytic dehydration of 2G bioethanol [from pine sawdust [...] Read more.

Producing second-generation (2G) bioethylene through the dehydration of 2G bioethanol is a challenge, requiring the effective use of catalysts as an alternative to fossil-based ethylene production. This work evaluates the production of bioethylene from the catalytic dehydration of 2G bioethanol [from pine sawdust produced via a simultaneous saccharification and fermentation SSF process (53%)] using γ-Al2O3; ZSM-5, NH₄⁺Y, H-ZSM-5, and H-Y zeolite as catalysts. Yields of 94.6% (at 372 °C) and 85.5% (at 473 °C) of 2G bioethylene were obtained when using H-ZSM-5 and H-Y zeolite, respectively. These results demonstrate that the H-ZSM-5 zeolite showed the best performance for 2G bioethanol dehydration, producing high 2G bioethanol conversion and 2G bioethylene selectivity at a lower reaction temperature. Ethylene production from the catalytic dehydration of commercial (96%) and diluted (53%) ethanol was evaluated as a reference, along with the effects of the weight hourly space velocity (WHSV) and ethanol concentration. Varying the WHSV from 2.37 to 4.73 h⁻¹ at 312 °C and using commercial ethanol at 96%, produced similar ethanol conversion of 100% and ethylene yield of 100%. At 290 °C, with a WHSV of 2.37 h⁻¹ and 53% diluted commercial ethanol, H-ZSM-5 converted 76.83% of the ethanol and produced a 75.8% ethylene yield. A study based on density functional theory (DFT) has shown that diethyl ether is a key intermediate in the conversion mechanism on H-ZSM-5, proceeding through an ethoxide intermediate in the rate-determining step, with an apparent activation energy of 25.4 kcal mol⁻¹. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biofuels Production Processes)

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20 pages, 749 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Grid-Based Scenario Delineation Method for Distribution Networks Based on Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation and SNN-DPC Clustering

by Liuzhu Zhu, Xin Yang, Xuli Wang, Fan Zhou, Zhi Guan and Hejun Yang

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2923; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092923 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

Aiming at the problems that the random probability characteristics of large-scale source and load resources lead to the ineffectiveness of deterministic planning methods, the standard grid structure is difficult to adapt to the demands of diversified scenarios. This paper proposes a grid-based scenario [...] Read more.

Aiming at the problems that the random probability characteristics of large-scale source and load resources lead to the ineffectiveness of deterministic planning methods, the standard grid structure is difficult to adapt to the demands of diversified scenarios. This paper proposes a grid-based scenario delineation method for distribution networks based on fuzzy comprehensive evaluation and SNN-DPC (density peak clustering based on shared-nearest-neighbors). First, analyze the response characteristics of various types of flexible resources, and establish a multi-dimensional comprehensive assessment index system that integrates operational characteristics and structural features. Second, the comprehensive weights of each index in the index layer are calculated based on the DEMATEL-ANP method and the CRITIC method, and the assessment value of the intermediate layer is calculated by the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method. Finally, the assessment value of the intermediate layer is clustered based on the improved SNN-DPC algorithm, so as to classify the distribution grid scenarios. The results indicate that the proposed method can effectively and accurately classify distribution network scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Power System Optimization for Energy Storage: Methods and Applications)

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12 pages, 1417 KB

Open AccessArticle

Controlling the Concentration of Copper Sulfide Doped with Silver Metal Nanoparticles as a Mechanism to Improve Photon Harvesting in Polymer Solar Cells

by Jude N. Ike, Xhamla Nqoro, Genene Tessema Mola and Raymond Tichaona Taziwa

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2922; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092922 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

The development of thin-film organic solar cells (TFOSCs) is pivotal for advancing sustainable energy technologies because of their potential for low-cost, lightweight, and flexible photovoltaic applications. In this study, silver-doped copper sulfide (CuS/Ag) metal nanoparticles (MNPs) were successfully synthesized via a wet chemical [...] Read more.

The development of thin-film organic solar cells (TFOSCs) is pivotal for advancing sustainable energy technologies because of their potential for low-cost, lightweight, and flexible photovoltaic applications. In this study, silver-doped copper sulfide (CuS/Ag) metal nanoparticles (MNPs) were successfully synthesized via a wet chemical method. These CuS/Ag MNPs were incorporated at varying concentrations into a poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PC61BM) blend, serving as the active layer to enhance the photovoltaic performance of the TFOSCs. The fabricated TFOSC devices were systematically evaluated based on the optical, electrical, and morphological characteristics of the active layer. By varying the concentration of CuS/Ag MNPs, the influence of nanoparticle doping on photocurrent generation was investigated. The device incorporating 1% CuS/Ag MNPs exhibited the highest power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 5.28%, significantly outperforming the pristine reference device, which achieved a PCE of 2.53%. This enhancement is attributed to the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), which augments charge transport and increases optical absorption. The CuS/Ag MNPs were characterized using ultraviolet–visible (UV-Vis) absorption spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy-dispersive dispersion (EDX) analysis. These findings underscore the potential of CuS/Ag MNPs in revolutionizing TFOSCs, paving the way for more efficient and sustainable solar energy solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamental Materials Simulation and Experimental Research for Solar Cells and Industrial Applications)

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28 pages, 15140 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Understandings and Principal Practices of Water Flooding Development in a Thick Porous Carbonate Reservoir: Case Study of the B Oilfield in the Middle East

by Yu Zhang, Peiyuan Chen, Risu Na, Changyong Li, Jian Pi and Wei Song

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2921; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092921 (registering DOI) - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

This paper demonstrates the comprehensive research of the target Middle Eastern carbonate oilfield on waterflooding technologies, including geological characteristics, integrated research, and principal development techniques. Geological research reveals that the Mishrif Formation in the B Oilfield is a gentle-sloping carbonate platform, with granular [...] Read more.

This paper demonstrates the comprehensive research of the target Middle Eastern carbonate oilfield on waterflooding technologies, including geological characteristics, integrated research, and principal development techniques. Geological research reveals that the Mishrif Formation in the B Oilfield is a gentle-sloping carbonate platform, with granular limestone serving as the primary reservoir rock and micrite limestone serving as the secondary reservoir rock. In addition, based on understandings drawn from geological characteristics and numerical simulation, the water flooding mode of IBPT, which can take full use of the gravity effect, has been proven to yield better sweep efficiency in the context of a thick and heterogeneous reservoir. Furthermore, a large-scale physical model experiment is designed to investigate the fluid migration between the producer and injector and indicates that the injected water migration is mainly divided into four phases, including a two-peak advance phase, a gravitational differentiation phase, a secondary bottom water phase, and a wellbore water coning phase. Subsequently, the principal techniques and corresponding optimized production responses of water flooding development are systematically illustrated, which consist of well type optimization, differentiated water injection strategies, injection pattern conversion, unstable water injection, selective well perforation, as well as tracer surveillance methodology. The outcomes of this study are directly derived from field performances and could provide concrete practical experiences for water flooding technology in the Middle East. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)

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29 pages, 7232 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Exposing Vulnerabilities: Physical Adversarial Attacks on AI-Based Fault Diagnosis Models in Industrial Air-Cooling Systems

by Stavros Bezyrgiannidis, Ioannis Polymeropoulos, Eleni Vrochidou and George A. Papakostas

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2920; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092920 (registering DOI) - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Although neural network-based methods have significantly advanced the field of machine fault diagnosis, they remain vulnerable to physical adversarial attacks. This work investigates such attacks in the physical context of a real production line. Attacks simulate failures or irregularities arising from the maintenance [...] Read more.

Although neural network-based methods have significantly advanced the field of machine fault diagnosis, they remain vulnerable to physical adversarial attacks. This work investigates such attacks in the physical context of a real production line. Attacks simulate failures or irregularities arising from the maintenance or production department during the production process, a scenario commonly encountered in industrial environments. The experiments are conducted using data from vibration signals and operational parameters of a motor installed in an industrial air-cooling system used for staple fiber production. In this context, we propose the Mean Confusion Impact Index (MCII), a novel and simple robustness metric that measures the average misclassification confidence of models under adversarial physical attacks. By performing a series of hardware-level interventions, this work aims to demonstrate that even minor physical disturbances can lead to a significant reduction in the model’s diagnostic accuracy. Additionally, a hybrid defense approach is proposed, which leverages deep feature representations extracted from the original classification model and integrates them with lightweight classifiers retrained on adversarial labeled data. Research findings underscore an important limitation in existing industrial artificial intelligence (AI)-based monitoring systems and introduce a practical, scalable framework for improving the physical resilience of machine fault diagnosis in real-world environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Artificial Intelligence in Industrial Process Modelling and Optimization (2nd Edition))

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27 pages, 5655 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Process Route for Electric Arc Furnace Dust (EAFD) Rinse Wastewater Desalination

by Hedviga Horváthová, Eduardo Henrique Rotta, Tatiane Benvenuti, Andréa Moura Bernardes, Andrea Miskufova and Zita Takáčová

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2919; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092919 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study introduces a two-step treatment method for synthetic and real electric arc furnace dust (EAFD) wastewater, integrating sorption with Mg–Al layered double hydroxides (LDHs) and electrodialysis (ED). The hydrotalcite (LDH), mainly Mg₆Al₂(CO₃)OH₁₆·4H₂O [...] Read more.

This study introduces a two-step treatment method for synthetic and real electric arc furnace dust (EAFD) wastewater, integrating sorption with Mg–Al layered double hydroxides (LDHs) and electrodialysis (ED). The hydrotalcite (LDH), mainly Mg₆Al₂(CO₃)OH₁₆·4H₂O (hydrotalcite-2H), was characterized by XRD, FTIR, SEM, and EDX, confirming its layered structure and ion-exchange capacity. Calcination at 550 °C was identified as optimal, enhancing sorption efficiency while retaining rehydration potential. Sorption tests demonstrated high effectiveness in removing multivalent ions, achieving over 99% elimination of Ca²⁺, SO₄²⁻, and Pb²⁺ ions and Cr from both synthetic and real wastewater. In contrast, monovalent ions such as Na⁺ and K⁺ were not effectively removed, except for partial removal of Cl⁻. To overcome this limitation, electrodialysis was applied in the second step, successfully targeting the remaining monovalent ions and achieving more than 95% conductivity reduction. A key challenge of ED, salt precipitation caused by calcium and sulphate in the concentrate, was effectively mitigated by the prior LDH treatment. The combined process minimized scaling risks, improved overall ion removal (above 97% for Na⁺ and K⁺), and produced low-salinity effluents (0.84 mS cm⁻¹), suitable for reuse in hydrometallurgical operations. These findings demonstrate that coupling LDH sorption with electrodialysis provides a sustainable and efficient strategy for treating high-salinity industrial wastewaters, particularly those originating from EAFD processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Processes and Technologies for Wastewater: Collection, Treatment, and Resource)

21 pages, 817 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Supercritical Adsorption Potential Equation for Shale Gas and Its Application: A Case Study of Methane Adsorption in Danish Bornholm Shale

by Pei Xue, Quansheng Liang, Chao Gao, Jintao Yin, Cheng Huang and Yushan Ma

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2918; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092918 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Since shale gas adsorption belongs to supercritical gas adsorption, the ideal gas adsorption potential equation is not suitable for calculating the adsorption potential of shale gas. In this study, the supercritical gas adsorption potential equation is proposed based on the assumption that the [...] Read more.

Since shale gas adsorption belongs to supercritical gas adsorption, the ideal gas adsorption potential equation is not suitable for calculating the adsorption potential of shale gas. In this study, the supercritical gas adsorption potential equation is proposed based on the assumption that the adsorbed phase is a real gas. The adsorbed phase pressure, as the parameter in the adsorption potential equation, was calculated using the Amankwah equation. For the unknown parameter K in the Amankwah equation, a method for determining the optimal value of K based on the consistency of the adsorption characteristic curve and the accuracy of the predicted isothermal adsorption curve is proposed, thus obtaining the adsorbed phase pressure. Simultaneously, based on a comparison of the ideal gas and supercritical gas adsorption potential, a simplified equation for the supercritical gas adsorption potential is proposed. In this paper, the isothermal adsorption curve of CH₄ adsorbed by Holm shale is used to carry out practical calculations. This study revealed that the optimal value of K for the CH₄ adsorption system in Holm shale is 2.9, with the adsorbed phase pressure ranging from 17.11 to 32.19 MPa within the temperature range of 300–373 K. The supercritical gas adsorption characteristic curves exhibited excellent consistency, and the average relative error of the predicted ascending segment of the excess adsorption isotherm at 373 K was merely 1.77%, thereby substantiating the rationality of the supercritical gas adsorption potential equation. The simplified equation for supercritical gas adsorption potential is straightforward in form, facilitating its widespread application and promotion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Theory and Technology of Unconventional Oil and Gas Reservoirs)

19 pages, 3973 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Statistical Process Control Models for Monitoring the Biological Burden of a Buffer Solution Used as Input to Produce an Attenuated Viral Vaccine

by Josiane Machado Vieira Mattoso, Greice Maria Silva da Conceição, Ana Paula Roque da Silva, Paulo Vinicius Pereira Miranda, Letícia de Alencar Pereira Rodrigues, Marcelo Luiz Lima Brandão and Jeancarlo Pereira dos Anjos

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2917; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092917 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

The pharmaceutical industry faces various production challenges. Bioburden control is essential, and appropriate strategies and procedures must be implemented at all stages of production to prevent microbial contamination and comply with regulatory standards. Quality tools can provide important information for data management in [...] Read more.

The pharmaceutical industry faces various production challenges. Bioburden control is essential, and appropriate strategies and procedures must be implemented at all stages of production to prevent microbial contamination and comply with regulatory standards. Quality tools can provide important information for data management in production processes. The objective of this study was to compare two types of statistical process control charts (Laney’s U-chart and Bell distribution) in monitoring the bioburden of a buffer solution used as an input to produce an attenuated viral vaccine. Bioburden data for the buffer solution were obtained over a two-year period. The results showed that the analyzed products met the regulatory specifications, as 99% of them presented ≤10 colony-forming units (CFU)/100 mL after filtration. Various microorganisms were identified in the buffer solution, including species from the genus Bacillus spp., Micrococcus spp., Kocuria spp., Staphylococcus spp., and Acinetobacter spp. The Bell distribution proved to be statistically more suitable for application in the management of bioburden data for the buffer solution since the limits were closer to the specified value and could more effectively assist in the investigation of process deviations in the production of an attenuated viral vaccine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbiological Environmental Monitoring in the Pharmaceutical Industry)

33 pages, 2763 KB

Open AccessReview

Electrocoagulation for the Removal of Antibiotics and Resistant Bacteria: Advances and Synergistic Technologies

by Laura Sol Pérez-Flores and Eduardo Torres

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2916; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092916 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

The persistence of antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in aquatic environments poses a significant risk to both the environment and public health. Conventional wastewater treatment systems are often inefficient in completely removing these emerging contaminants, highlighting the need for advanced and integrative treatment [...] Read more.

The persistence of antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in aquatic environments poses a significant risk to both the environment and public health. Conventional wastewater treatment systems are often inefficient in completely removing these emerging contaminants, highlighting the need for advanced and integrative treatment approaches. Electrocoagulation (EC) has emerged as a promising electrochemical method due to its operational simplicity, low chemical demand, and versatility in treating a wide range of wastewater types. This review critically analyzes the efficiency of EC, both as a standalone process and in combination with complementary technologies such as electrooxidation, membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), and biological treatments. Emphasis is placed on the removal mechanisms, influencing parameters (pH, current density, electrode material), and the synergistic effects that enhance the degradation of antibiotics and the inactivation of ARB. Additionally, the review discusses the limitations of EC, including electrode passivation and energy consumption. The integration of EC with other technologies demonstrates improved pollutant removal and process robustness, offering a viable alternative for treating complex wastewater streams. This work provides a perspective on the current state and future potential of EC-based hybrid systems in mitigating the environmental impact of antibiotic pollutants and antimicrobial resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Oxidation Processes for Waste Treatment)

24 pages, 4547 KB

Open AccessArticle

Removal of Cu and Pb in Contaminated Loess by Electrokinetic Remediation Using Novel Hydrogel Electrodes Coupled with Focusing Position Adjustment and Exchange Electrode

by Chengbo Liu, Wenle Hu, Xiang Zhu, Shixu Zhang and Weijing Wang

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2915; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092915 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Electrokinetic (EK) remediation is a promising approach for the removal of heavy metals from fine-grained soils; however, its efficiency is often hindered by electrode polarization, pH imbalance, and ion accumulation. In this study, we developed a novel hydrogel-based electrode (NH electrode), composed of [...] Read more.

Electrokinetic (EK) remediation is a promising approach for the removal of heavy metals from fine-grained soils; however, its efficiency is often hindered by electrode polarization, pH imbalance, and ion accumulation. In this study, we developed a novel hydrogel-based electrode (NH electrode), composed of sodium alginate and multilayer graphene oxide (GO), to enhance the electrokinetic removal of Cu²⁺ and Pb²⁺ from loess. The electrode was systematically characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM), cyclic voltammetry (CV), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), confirming its structural integrity, electrochemical activity, and interfacial conductivity. The NH electrode exhibited a smooth layered graphene structure with abundant oxygen-containing functional groups (AFM), negligible electrochemical polarization (CV), and low internal resistance with high conductivity (EIS), enabling efficient ion transport and adsorption. Electrokinetic tests revealed that the NH electrode outperformed conventional graphene (Gr) and electrokinetic graphite (EKG) electrodes. Single regulation strategies, including focusing position adjustment and electrode exchange, improved local removal efficiency by mitigating ion accumulation in targeted regions. The combined regulation strategy, integrating both measures, achieved the most uniform Cu²⁺ and Pb²⁺ removal, significantly suppressing hydroxide precipitation in cathodic zones and enhancing ion migration in the mid-section. Compared with literature-reported systems under similar or even more favorable conditions, the NH electrode and combined regulation approach achieved superior performance, with Cu²⁺ and Pb²⁺ removal efficiencies reaching 47.25% and 16.93%, respectively. These findings demonstrate that coupling electrode material innovation with spatial–temporal pH/flow field regulation can overcome key bottlenecks in EK remediation of heavy-metal-contaminated loess. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Heavy Metal Contaminated Soil and Water Remediation)

18 pages, 1127 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Stage Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Tunisian Walnut (Juglans regia L.) Bark

by Nesrine Boukettaya, Houcine Mhemdi and Nabil Kechaou

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2914; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092914 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to optimize the extraction of total phenolic compounds (TPC) from Tunisian walnut bark using microwave treatment. Initially, a preliminary investigation was conducted to establish optimal levels for ethanol concentration, liquid–solid ratio, temperature, and time, which were then applied in subsequent [...] Read more.

This study aimed to optimize the extraction of total phenolic compounds (TPC) from Tunisian walnut bark using microwave treatment. Initially, a preliminary investigation was conducted to establish optimal levels for ethanol concentration, liquid–solid ratio, temperature, and time, which were then applied in subsequent conventional solvent extraction (CSE) experiments. To enhance the extraction yield, multi-stage microwave-assisted extraction (MS MAE) was evaluated using three microwave power settings: 100, 200, and 300 W. The results showed a statistically significant (p < 0.05) effect of microwave irradiation combined with multiple solvent extraction stages. The optimized MS MAE protocol, employing 300 W power, six stages of 10 min each, and a liquid–solid ratio of 10 mL/g, achieved an 86% recovery of TPC. In contrast, extraction involving 10 stages of 30 min each without microwave irradiation recovered only 79% of TPC. UHPLC–MS analysis revealed that the phenolic profile of the extracts was dominated by gallic acid, vanillic acid, and quercetin, and that microwave treatment did not significantly alter the qualitative or quantitative composition of these major phenolic compounds compared to conventional extraction. These findings demonstrate that MS MAE is a time-saving, energy-saving, solvent-reducing, and highly efficient extraction technology for producing bioactive extracts from walnut bark. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Process Intensification and Application for Bioprocesses and Green Chemical Engineering)

13 pages, 3632 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Analysis of Torque Ripple Reduction in Low-Pole Axial Flux Motor

by Si-Woo Song and Won-Ho Kim

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2913; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092913 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

With the growing demand for high-efficiency and high-performance electric motors in applications such as electric vehicles, drones, and industrial drive systems, Axial Flux Motors (AFMs) have gained significant attention due to their high torque density and compact structure. However, low-pole AFMs are prone [...] Read more.

With the growing demand for high-efficiency and high-performance electric motors in applications such as electric vehicles, drones, and industrial drive systems, Axial Flux Motors (AFMs) have gained significant attention due to their high torque density and compact structure. However, low-pole AFMs are prone to performance degradation and noise issues caused by magnetic saturation in the rotor back yoke and increased torque ripple. In this study, a conventional 6-pole, 9-slot Radial Flux Motor (RFM) was redesigned as an AFM within the same external volume. To minimize losses, the stator inner diameter and slot thickness were co-optimized. In addition, tapering techniques were applied to both the stator and magnets to reduce torque ripple, and a parametric analysis of magnet tapering was conducted to identify optimal design conditions. A rolling core fabrication method was adopted to ensure both electromagnetic performance and manufacturability. The final AFM design demonstrated a 1.4 percentage point improvement in efficiency. Additionally, torque ripple was reduced by 69.44%, thereby validating the effectiveness of the AFM redesign and ripple reduction strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy Management and Efficiency in Electric Motors, Drives, Power Converters and Related Systems, 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 2834 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Parameter Optimization of Winding Device of Chain Network Residual Film Recycling Machine Based on High-Speed Camera Analysis

by Yan Zhao, Xinliang Tian, Xuegeng Chen, Xuehu Liu, Yuanchao Li and Guangliang Huang

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2912; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092912 - 12 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Aiming at the problems of low operating efficiency and the unclear mechanisms in the bundling process of existing residual film recycling machines, this paper designs a chain network-type residual film bundling device and analyzes the motion characteristics of the film bundling process using [...] Read more.

Aiming at the problems of low operating efficiency and the unclear mechanisms in the bundling process of existing residual film recycling machines, this paper designs a chain network-type residual film bundling device and analyzes the motion characteristics of the film bundling process using high-speed camera technology. A mechanical analysis of the bundling process was conducted, and a test rig for the chain network residual film bundling device was built. The bundling process was studied via a high-speed camera. Field tests were carried out with the density of the film bale as the evaluation indicator and the forward speed of the machine, the rotational speed of the active film-removing roller, and the rotational speed of the film-rolling support roller as influencing factors. A Box–Behnken experimental design was used to optimize the working parameters of the device. The results show that when the machine’s forward speed is 5.8 km/h, the active stripping roller rotates at 170 rpm, the roll support roller operates at 210 rpm, and the film bale density reaches 124.44 kg/m³, with a relative error of only 1.34 kg/m³ compared to the predicted value. This verifies the effectiveness of the device and demonstrates that it can meet the requirements of mechanized residual film recycling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Materials Processes)

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23 pages, 5246 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of Sedimentation Behavior of Densely Arranged Particles in a Vertical Pipe Using Coupled SPH-DEM

by Peng Ji, Zhiyuan Wang, Weigang Du, Zhenli Pang, Liyong Guan, Yong Liu and Xiangwei Dong

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2911; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092911 - 12 Sep 2025

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Abstract

This study develops a coupled Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) and the Discrete Element Method (DEM) framework to explore the sedimentation behavior of densely arranged particles in vertical pipes. An unresolved SPH-DEM model is proposed, which integrates porosity-dependent fluid governing equations through local averaging [...] Read more.

This study develops a coupled Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) and the Discrete Element Method (DEM) framework to explore the sedimentation behavior of densely arranged particles in vertical pipes. An unresolved SPH-DEM model is proposed, which integrates porosity-dependent fluid governing equations through local averaging techniques to connect pore-scale interactions with macroscopic flow characteristics. Validated against single-particle settling experiments, the model accurately captures transient acceleration, drag equilibrium, and rebound dynamics. Systematic simulations reveal that particle number, arrangement patterns, and fluid domain geometry play critical roles in regulating collective settling: Increasing particle count induces nonlinear terminal velocity reduction. Systems of 16 particles show 50% lower velocity than single-particle cases due to enhanced shielding and energy dissipation. Particle configuration (compact layouts 4 × 8 vs. elongated arrangements 8 × 4) dictates hydrodynamic resistance, compact layouts facilitate faster settling by reducing cross-sectional blockage, while elongated arrangements amplify lateral resistance. The width of the fluid domain exerts threshold effects: narrow boundaries (0.03 m) intensify wall-induced drag and suppress vortices, whereas wider domains promote symmetric vortices that enhance stability. Additionally, critical transitions in multi-row/column systems are identified, where stress-chain redistribution and fluid-permeation thresholds govern particle detachment and velocity stratification. These findings deepen the understanding of granular–fluid interactions in confined spaces and provide a predictive tool for optimizing particle management in industrial processes such as wellbore cleaning and hydraulic fracturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Processes and Systems)

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22 pages, 1053 KB

Open AccessReview

Edible Pouch Packaging for Food Applications—A Review

by Azin Omid Jeivan and Sabina Galus

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2910; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092910 - 12 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Current food packaging, primarily made of non-biodegradable plastics, significantly contributes to environmental pollution. New packaging systems for food applications from biopolymers and/or with multifunctional properties are being developed as substitutes for synthetic polymers. The increasing concern over the environmental effects of packaging waste [...] Read more.

Current food packaging, primarily made of non-biodegradable plastics, significantly contributes to environmental pollution. New packaging systems for food applications from biopolymers and/or with multifunctional properties are being developed as substitutes for synthetic polymers. The increasing concern over the environmental effects of packaging waste is driving a transition toward renewable packaging materials. Edible films and coatings play a vital role in maintaining food quality by preventing the loss of aroma, flavour, and important components, while also extending shelf life. Biopolymers, including polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids, are gaining attention as the future of packaging due to the environmental issues linked to petrochemical-based plastics. Modern packaging should not only protect products but also be biodegradable, recyclable, and have a minimal ecological impact. This review comprehensively summarises edible packaging in the form of single-use, fast-dissolving pouches for food applications as a circular approach and a sustainable solution in food technology. Innovations have resulted in the development of a unique packaging solution made from renewable sources. This packaging utilises plant and animal by-products to create edible films and pouches that are easy to seal. Edible packaging is emerging as a sustainable alternative, designed to simplify food packaging while minimising waste. Fast-dissolving scalable packaging, particularly edible films that dissolve in water, is used for individual servings of dry foods and instant beverages. This includes items like breakfast cereals, instant coffee or tea, and various powdered products. Additionally, there is an innovative approach to single-use packaging for oils and powders, leveraging the convenience and efficiency of these fast-dissolving films. Edible pouch packaging, made from safe and edible materials, provides a biodegradable option that decomposes naturally, thereby reducing pollution and the need for disposal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews in Food Processing Technologies: Present Innovations and Future Opportunities (2nd Edition))

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23 pages, 3086 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Decarbonizing Rural Off-Grid Areas Through Hybrid Renewable Hydrogen Systems: A Case Study from Turkey

by Aysenur Oymak and Mehmet Rida Tur

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2909; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092909 - 12 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Access to renewable energy is vital for rural development and climate change mitigation. The intermittency of renewable sources necessitates efficient energy storage, especially in off-grid applications. This study evaluates the technical, economic, and environmental performance of an off-grid hybrid system for the rural [...] Read more.

Access to renewable energy is vital for rural development and climate change mitigation. The intermittency of renewable sources necessitates efficient energy storage, especially in off-grid applications. This study evaluates the technical, economic, and environmental performance of an off-grid hybrid system for the rural settlement of Soma, Turkey. Using HOMER Pro 3.14.2 software, a system consisting of solar, wind, battery, and hydrogen components was modeled under four scenarios with Cyclic Charging (CC) and Load Following (LF) control strategies for optimization. Life cycle assessment (LCA) and hydrogen leakage impacts were calculated separately through MATLAB R2019b analysis in accordance with ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 standards. Scenario 1 (PV + wind + battery + H₂) offered the most balanced solution with a net present cost (NPC) of USD 297,419, with a cost of electricity (COE) of USD 0.340/kWh. Scenario 2 without batteries increased hydrogen consumption despite a similar COE. Scenario 3 with wind only achieved the lowest hydrogen consumption and the highest efficiency. In Scenario 4, hydrogen consumption decreased with battery reintegration, but COE increased. Specific CO₂ emissions ranged between 36–45 gCO₂-eq/kWh across scenarios. Results indicate that the control strategy and component selection strongly influence performance and that hydrogen-based hybrid systems offer a sustainable solution in rural areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Hydrogen Production: Advances and Prospects)

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28 pages, 6775 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reliability Study of Metal Bellows in Low-Temperature High-Pressure Liquid Carbon Dioxide Transportation Systems: Failure Mechanism Analysis

by Chao Liu, Yunlong Gu, Hua Wen, Shangwen Zhu and Peng Jiang

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2908; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092908 - 11 Sep 2025

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Abstract

In order to meet the harsh working environment and complex and changeable stress conditions, the low-temperature and high-pressure liquid carbon dioxide conveying system used in oil extraction will choose metal bellows for transportation. In this paper, the bellows in an accident section are [...] Read more.

In order to meet the harsh working environment and complex and changeable stress conditions, the low-temperature and high-pressure liquid carbon dioxide conveying system used in oil extraction will choose metal bellows for transportation. In this paper, the bellows in an accident section are investigated and observed by the working environment and characterization methods such as macroscopic analysis, metallographic analysis, EDS component analysis, fracture scanning electron microscopy analysis, and related mechanical performance test methods. The failure mechanism of the accident is preliminarily judged, and the unidirectional fluid–structure coupling model and the standard k-ω turbulence model are used as the calculation models for subsequent simulation. Combined with Fluent finite element simulation analysis, it is verified that the failure is caused by a welding defect, the maximum stress of the metal bellows under normal conditions is less than its own yield strength, and the material can work normally. When the welding crack is greater than 2 mm, the strength of the workpiece weld will be reduced, and the stress concentration has exceeded the yield strength that the workpiece can bear, causing failure fracture at the welding defect part. Combined with ANSYS simulation of accident defects, compared with bellows without defects, the stress at the crack will increase with the increase in the inlet flow velocity and decrease with the increase in temperature, and the flow rate will have a greater influence on it. Therefore, in actual working conditions, the stiffness and fatigue life of the conveying system can be improved by appropriately reducing the liquid flow rate and increasing the temperature. It provides a reference for the future application research of bellows and the research on bellows fracture failure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Materials Processes)

19 pages, 3632 KB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Cedrela odorata L. as a Biomaterial for Dye Adsorption in Wastewater: Simulation and Machine Learning Approaches for Scale-Up Analysis

by Candelaria Tejada-Tovar, Ángel Villabona-Ortíz, Oscar E. Coronado-Hernández, Modesto Pérez-Sánchez and María Hueto-Polo

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2907; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092907 - 11 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Methylene blue and safranin are dyes that may have harmful effects on both aquatic ecosystems and human health. This research aims to simulate an industrial-scale operational adsorption column for competitively removing these dyes from wastewater, employing Cedrela odorata L. as a bioadsorbent material. [...] Read more.

Methylene blue and safranin are dyes that may have harmful effects on both aquatic ecosystems and human health. This research aims to simulate an industrial-scale operational adsorption column for competitively removing these dyes from wastewater, employing Cedrela odorata L. as a bioadsorbent material. Aspen Adsorption (v.1) software simulated an industrial-scale packed-bed adsorption column under various configurations. Moreover, machine learning algorithms were applied to predict the results generated by Aspen, representing an advancement in the development of new strategies in this field. The kinetic model employed was the Linear Driving Force (LDF) model. Adsorption efficiencies of 96.1% were achieved for both methylene blue and safranin using the Langmuir–LDF model. The Freundlich–LDF model showed efficiencies of 94.8% for methylene blue and 96% for safranin. Meanwhile, the Langmuir–Freundlich–LDF model achieved up to 96.1% for methylene blue and 94.8% for safranin. This study demonstrated the feasibility of simulating the competitive adsorption of dyes in solution at an industrial scale using Cedrela odorata L. as a bioadsorbent. The application of LDF kinetic models and adsorption isotherms (Langmuir, Freundlich, and Langmuir–Freundlich) resulted in high adsorption efficiencies, highlighting the potential of this approach for the remediation of dye-contaminated effluents as a viable method for predicting the performance of full-scale packed columns. Machine learning algorithms were implemented in this research, obtaining R² higher than 0.996 for validation and testing stages for the responses of the model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Optimization for Multi-scale Integration)

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16 pages, 1181 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Modeling of the Mutual Placement of Thermoanemometer Sensors on a Flat Surface of an Air Flow

by Taras Dmytriv, Vasyl Dmytriv and Michał Bembenek

Processes 2025, 13(9), 2906; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092906 - 11 Sep 2025

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Abstract

A functional model of a thermoanemometer measuring the air flow velocity on a flat wall surface of the flow has been developed. From the heat balance equation of the sensing elements in the thermoanemometer, a dependence has been derived for determining the heating [...] Read more.

A functional model of a thermoanemometer measuring the air flow velocity on a flat wall surface of the flow has been developed. From the heat balance equation of the sensing elements in the thermoanemometer, a dependence has been derived for determining the heating temperature of the sensing elements. The distribution of the temperature field in the boundary layer was modeled by analogy with the velocity distribution, following a cubic dependence. The distribution of the temperature field on a flat wall surface of the flow from the heating of the sensing elements was obtained analytically by solving the heat conduction equation in the direction of the coordinate of the air flow velocity vector for the boundary conditions of the II as well as II and III kinds. The developed mathematical dependencies enable both the modeling of the distribution of temperature fields in the sensing elements and justifying the distance between them. The reliability of measurements of the air flow velocity on the wall surface of the flow depends on the impossibility of influencing the temperature of one sensing element of the sensor on the temperature of the other. The task of justifying the distance between the sensing elements of the sensor, which are located in the direction of the air flow velocity vector, aims to prevent the interaction of the temperature fields of the elements with each other. The boundary condition is that at the boundary of separation between the temperature fields of the sensing elements, there is a temperature that is 5 to 10% lower than the temperature of the colder sensing element. The ratio of the resistances of the sensing elements is 4/1. The power released by the first sensing element of the sensor, aligned along the air flow velocity vector, is 4 times lower than the heating power of the second sensing element of the sensor. The modeling was carried out at an air flow velocity within 30 and 330 m·s⁻¹. The values of the distances between the sensing elements of the thermal anemometer vary with the supply voltage. The material of the sensing elements is nickel. The contact area of the surface of the sensing elements was 214.337 mm². Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluid Dynamics and Thermodynamic Studies in Gas Turbine)

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