Cowpea Crop Response to Mineral and Organic Fertilization in SE Spain
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site and Experimental Design
2.2. Soil and Plant Sampling
2.3. Soil Analyses
2.4. Plant Analyses
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Soil Physicochemical Properties
3.2. Soil Enzyme Activities
3.3. Cowpea Yield, Crop Quality and Nutritional Characteristics
3.4. Interrelationships between Soil and Crop Properties
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameters a | |
---|---|
pH | 8.40 ± 0.09 |
EC (dS m−1) | 0.34 ± 0.07 |
SOC (%) | 1.19 ± 0.18 |
Bulk density (Mg m−3) | 1.01 ± 0.03 |
CEC (cmol kg−1) | 7.80 ± 1.20 |
CaCO3 (%) | 30.2 ± 1.2 |
Clay (%) | 34.5 ± 0.16 |
Silt (%) | 21.3 ± 1.06 |
Sand (%) | 44.2 ± 0.92 |
Nt (%) | 0.094 ± 0.007 |
NO3− (mg kg−1) | 156 ± 45 |
NH4+ (mg kg−1) | 5.69 ± 1.12 |
Available P (mg kg−1) | 30.0 ± 5.4 |
Exchangeable K (mg kg−1) | 369 ± 63 |
Exchangeable Ca (mg kg−1) | 2726 ± 126 |
Exchangeable Mg (mg kg−1) | 606 ± 24 |
Exchangeable Na (mg kg−1) | 301 ± 31 |
Cowpea Cultivar a | Fertilizer Type | SOC (g kg−1) | Nt (g kg−1) | AS (%) | RC (%) | LC (%) | NH₄+ (mg kg−1) | NO₃− (mg kg−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2014 | ||||||||
FP | Mineral | 13.2 ± 1.2 | 1.2 ± 0.1 | 24.7 ± 13.4 | 0.58 ± 0.06 | 0.74 ± 0.09 | 842 ± 134 | 6.7 ± 2.6 |
FC | Mineral | 13.0 ± 0.4 | 1.1 ± 0.0 | 17.3 ± 4.7 | 0.56 ± 0.02 | 0.74 ± 0.05 | 576 ± 213 | 7.3 ± 1.0 |
FP | Organic | 12.7 ± 1.0 | 1.1 ± 0.1 | 18.3 ± 6.5 | 0.59 ± 0.09 | 0.53 ± 0.22 | 473 ± 185 | 11.2 ± 4.1 |
FC | Organic | 11.6 ± 0.7 | 1.0 ± 0.1 | 7.8 ± 4.4 | 0.53 ± 0.09 | 0.63 ± 0.07 | 499 ± 249 | 13.2 ± 3.6 |
2015 | ||||||||
FP | Mineral | 11.7 ± 0.4 | 1.1 ± 0.1 | 26.7 ± 1.7 | 0.69 ± 0.14 | 0.70 ± 0.49 | 58 ± 13 | 4.9 ± 0.6 |
FC | Mineral | 11.2 ± 0.1 | 1.1 ± 0.1 | 22.6 ± 1.1 | 0.89 ± 0.02 | 0.70 ± 0.83 | 64 ± 16 | 6.9 ± 4.2 |
FP | Organic | 11.6 ± 0.9 | 0.8 ± 0.0 | 14.7 ± 4.8 | 0.21 ± 0.08 | 0.95 ± 0.14 | 71 ± 48 | 8.7 ± 2.2 |
FC | Organic | 12.6 ± 1.0 | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 14.7 ± 6.9 | 0.44 ± 0.25 | 0.82 ± 0.34 | 116 ± 68 | 5.8 ± 0.4 |
2016 | ||||||||
FP | Mineral | 14.6 ± 2.2 | 1.5 ± 0.1 | 50.7 ± 9.3 | 0.99 ± 0.13 | 0.47 ± 0.35 | 640 ± 110 | 10.4 ± 3.2 |
FC | Mineral | 14.1 ± 1.6 | 1.4 ± 0.1 | 44.8 ± 6.8 | 1.12 ± 0.08 | 0.29 ± 0.08 | 644 ± 149 | 10.0 ± 1.1 |
FP | Organic | 12.8 ± 2.2 | 1.2 ± 0.1 | 43.7 ± 9.9 | 0.92 ± 0.13 | 0.36 ± 0.09 | 315 ± 96 | 8.5 ± 1.5 |
FC | Organic | 14.5 ± 1.1 | 1.3 ± 0.2 | 56.0 ± 3.0 | 1.04 ± 0.05 | 0.41 ± 0.10 | 424 ± 109 | 18.0 ± 2.8 |
F-value b | ||||||||
Between Subjects | ||||||||
Cowpea Cultivar (CC) | 0.03 ns | 0.04 ns | 0.71 ns | 13.67 ** | 0.05 ns | 6.74 * | 0.05 ns | |
Fertilizer Type (FT) | 0.28 ns | 24.28 ** | 2.87 ns | 46.67 *** | 0.11 ns | 22.22 ** | 15.60 ** | |
CC × FT | 0.62 ns | 0.26 ns | 1.07 ns | 0.02 ns | 0.09 ns | 2.45 ns | 3.48 ns | |
Within Subjects | ||||||||
Year (Y) | 21.13 *** | 44.31 *** | 128.76 *** | 53.12 *** | 4.85 * | 9.85 ** | 44.03 *** | |
Y × CC | 1.80 ns | 1.05 ns | 3.85 * | 3.19 ns | 0.11 ns | 2.37 ns | 1.26 ns | |
Y × FT | 3.07 ns | 1.78 ns | 4.31 * | 11.67 ** | 0.79 ns | 1.42 ns | 3.82 * | |
Y × CC × FT | 2.58 ns | 0.96 ns | 2.99 ns | 0.05 ns | 0.22 ns | 4.99 * | 0.61 ns |
Cowpea Cultivar a | Fertilizer Type | Exc Ca (mg kg−1) | Exc Mg (mg kg−1) | Exc K (mg kg−1) | Exc Na (mg kg−1) | P (mg kg−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2014 | ||||||
FP | Mineral | 3614 ± 291 | 91 ± 10 | 524 ± 138 | 680 ± 144 | 24.8 ± 7.5 |
FC | Mineral | 3372 ± 30 | 84 ± 6 | 430 ± 43 | 554 ± 34 | 16.0 ± 3.5 |
FP | Organic | 3414 ± 220 | 83 ± 2 | 422 ± 32 | 563 ± 143 | 30.6 ± 2.8 |
FC | Organic | 3411 ± 112 | 85 ± 6 | 434 ± 117 | 565 ± 159 | 32.4 ± 8.1 |
2015 | ||||||
FP | Mineral | 6471 ± 1158 | 1513 ± 290 | 927 ± 79 | 662 ± 64 | 25.0 ± 4.4 |
FC | Mineral | 5555 ± 365 | 1222 ± 103 | 860 ± 31 | 506 ± 101 | 22.4 ± 5.9 |
FP | Organic | 5308 ± 112 | 1185 ± 70 | 698 ± 145 | 635 ± 24 | 19.7 ± 1.5 |
FC | Organic | 5396 ± 922 | 1140 ± 132 | 792 ± 168 | 569 ± 67 | 15.8 ± 3.2 |
2016 | ||||||
FP | Mineral | 877 ± 186 | 190 ± 33 | 196 ± 30 | 177 ± 56 | 72.6 ± 9.4 |
FC | Mineral | 925 ± 282 | 202 ± 76 | 205 ± 65 | 200 ± 111 | 66.0 ± 7.1 |
FP | Organic | 979 ± 352 | 200 ± 84 | 167 ± 80 | 154 ± 80 | 89.9 ± 30.7 |
FC | Organic | 673 ± 54 | 115 ± 12 | 127 ± 14 | 88 ± 12 | 94.5 ± 28.0 |
F-value b | ||||||
Between Subjects | ||||||
Cowpea Cultivar (CC) | 2.16 ns | 4.19 ns | 0.68 ns | 4.97 ns | 0.32 ns | |
Fertilizer Type (FT) | 3.26 ns | 5.95 * | 22.89 ** | 1.37 ns | 4.21 ns | |
CC × FT | 0.96 ns | 0.61 ns | 4.29 ns | 0.55 ns | 0.56 ns | |
Within Subjects | ||||||
Year (Y) | 292.13 *** | 453.64 *** | 107.37 *** | 77.38 *** | 80.21 *** | |
Y × CC | 0.35 ns | 2.01 ns | 0.19 ns | 0.60 ns | 0.34 ns | |
Y × FT | 1.42 ns | 3.05 ns | 0.81 ns | 0.63 ns | 3.82 ns | |
Y × CC × FT | 1.45 ns | 2.03 ns | 0.76 ns | 1.01 ns | 0.21 ns |
Previous Cowpea Cultivar a | Fertilizer Type | Dhs (µmol INTF g−1 h−1) | Glm (µmol PNP g−1 h−1) | Glu (µmol PNP g−1 h−1) | Aryl (µmol PNP g−1 h−1) | Cel (nmol Gearbox Sugars g−1 h−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2014 | ||||||
FP | Mineral | 0.16 ± 0.05 | 0.12 ± 0.04 | 0.59 ± 0.07 | 128 ± 32 | 171 ± 50 |
FC | Mineral | 0.18 ± 0.04 | 0.11 ± 0.05 | 0.54 ± 0.13 | 97 ± 30 | 190 ± 47 |
FP | Organic | 0.16 ± 0.09 | 0.15 ± 0.04 | 0.48 ± 0.05 | 176 ± 45 | 165 ± 96 |
FC | Organic | 0.13 ± 0.01 | 0.11 ± 0.02 | 0.45 ± 0.10 | 173 ± 60 | 172 ± 51 |
2015 | ||||||
FP | Mineral | 0.79 ± 0.13 | 0.29 ± 0.02 | 0.52 ± 0.10 | 70 ± 16 | 23 ± 17 |
FC | Mineral | 0.71 ± 0.04 | 0.17 ± 0.06 | 0.36 ± 0.08 | 84 ± 20 | 30 ± 24 |
FP | Organic | 0.73 ± 0.20 | 0.24 ± 0.11 | 0.28 ± 0.04 | 84 ± 30 | 22 ± 11 |
FC | Organic | 0.89 ± 0.25 | 0.21 ± 0.01 | 0.41 ± 0.03 | 56 ± 20 | 22 ± 12 |
2016 | ||||||
FP | Mineral | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.24 ± 0.08 | 0.36 ± 0.06 | 131 ± 44 | 1 ± 2 |
FC | Mineral | 0.02 ± 0.01 | 0.21 ± 0.12 | 0.38 ± 0.12 | 154 ± 14 | 5 ± 1 |
FP | Organic | 0.02 ± 0.00 | 0.27 ± 0.06 | 0.24 ± 0.09 | 105 ± 51 | 6 ± 2 |
FC | Organic | 0.02 ± 0.00 | 0.12 ± 0.05 | 0.36 ± 0.11 | 125 ± 33 | 7 ± 3 |
F-value b | ||||||
Between Subjects | ||||||
Cowpea Cultivar (CC) | 0.137 ns | 9.41 * | 0.10 ns | 0.00 ns | 0.22 ns | |
Fertilizer Type (FT) | 0.04 ns | 0.03 ns | 6.81 * | 0.47 ns | 0.10 ns | |
CC × FT | 1.34 ns | 0.24 ns | 4.22 ns | 0.04 ns | 0.07 ns | |
Within Subjects | ||||||
Year (Y) | 146.77 *** | 10.28 ** | 17.09 *** | 14.55 *** | 72.74 *** | |
Y × CC | 0.20 ns | 0.91 ns | 1.58 ns | 1.09 ns | 0.07 ns | |
Y × FT | 0.47 ns | 0.35 ns | 0.10 ns | 5.74 * | 0.13 ns | |
Y × CC × FT | 1.22 ns | 2.24 ns | 2.41 ns | 0.82 ns | 0.01 ns |
Cowpea Cultivar a | Fertilizer Type | Crop Yield (kg ha−1) | Protein Content in Seeds (%) | Weight of 100 Seeds (g) |
---|---|---|---|---|
2014 | ||||
FP | Mineral | 2333 ± 133 | 20.06 ± 1.25 | 21.27 ± 1.66 |
FC | Mineral | 2490 ± 167 | 19.66 ± 3.79 | 18.73 ± 0.59 |
FP | Organic | 2135 ± 306 | 19.64 ± 1.78 | 18.07 ± 0.70 |
FC | Organic | 2371 ± 161 | 18.54 ± 2.17 | 18.27 ± 0.81 |
2015 | ||||
FP | Mineral | 100 ± 52 | 19.48 ± 1.93 | 19.63 ± 1.40 |
FC | Mineral | 216 ± 144 | 20.15 ± 0.57 | 20.53 ± 2.29 |
FP | Organic | 121 ± 70 | 23.86 ± 3.57 | 24.11 ± 5.95 |
FC | Organic | 366 ± 152 | 21.55 ± 0.98 | 22.80 ± 3.03 |
2016 | ||||
FP | Mineral | 3033 ± 757 | 21.05 ± 0.74 | 27.79 ± 0.89 |
FC | Mineral | 4166 ± 1171 | 19.72 ± 1.80 | 21.08 ± 1.06 |
FP | Organic | 2533 ± 321 | 20.75 ± 1.71 | 25.11 ± 0.50 |
FC | Organic | 3366 ± 1167 | 18.94 ± 0.64 | 21.87 ± 1.38 |
F-value b | ||||
Between Subjects | ||||
Cowpea Cultivar (CC) | 6.48 * | 2.01 ns | 9.72 * | |
Fertilizer Type (FT) | 1.82 ns | 0.50 ns | 0.08 ns | |
CC × FT | 0.01 ns | 0.87 ns | 0.96 ns | |
Within Subjects | ||||
Year (Y) | 95.76 * | 2.71 ns | 13.14 *** | |
Y × CC | 2.03 ns | 0.17 ns | 3.51 ns | |
Y × FT | 1.35 ns | 3.47 ns | 4.27 ns | |
Y × CC × FT | 0.13 ns | 0.39 ns | 1.31 ns |
Cowpea Cultivar a | Fertilizer Type | N (g kg−1) | Ca (mg kg−1) | Mg (mg kg−1) | K (mg kg−1) | P (mg kg−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2014 | ||||||
FP | Mineral | 32.10 ± 2.01 | 754 ± 76 | 1985 ± 56 | 2977 ± 368 | 4651 ± 267 |
FC | Mineral | 31.45 ± 6.06 | 882 ± 67 | 1953 ± 48 | 13,468 ± 579 | 4751 ± 173 |
FP | Organic | 31.43 ± 2.85 | 716 ± 116 | 2029 ± 205 | 13,300 ± 486 | 4735 ± 658 |
FC | Organic | 29.66 ± 3.47 | 853 ± 38 | 2015 ± 56 | 13,801 ± 175 | 4886 ± 199 |
2015 | ||||||
FP | Mineral | 31.17 ± 3.09 | 2205 ± 397 | 3889 ± 457 | 28,302 ± 2575 | 11,208 ± 1264 |
FC | Mineral | 32.24 ± 0.91 | 2111 ± 86 | 3905 ± 346 | 28,321 ± 2832 | 10,225 ± 1174 |
FP | Organic | 38.17 ± 5.71 | 3068 ± 642 | 4575 ± 744 | 32,436 ± 5906 | 10,911 ± 1783 |
FC | Organic | 34.48 ± 1.57 | 2834 ± 109 | 4822 ± 311 | 32,963 ± 3009 | 11,735 ± 2724 |
2016 | ||||||
FP | Mineral | 33.69 ± 1.19 | 412 ± 65 | 1276 ± 134 | 3711 ± 230 | 1855 ± 115 |
FC | Mineral | 31.55 ± 2.88 | 604 ± 356 | 1826 ± 1110 | 4962 ± 2441 | 2481 ± 1220 |
FP | Organic | 33.21 ± 2.73 | 233 ± 88 | 599 ± 217 | 2135 ± 596 | 1067 ± 298 |
FC | Organic | 30.31 ± 1.03 | 349 ± 103 | 877 ± 317 | 3133 ± 772 | 1566 ± 386 |
F-value b | ||||||
Between Subjects | ||||||
Cowpea Cultivar (CC) | 2.01 ns | 0.20 ns | 0.81 ns | 0.46 ns | 0.23 ns | |
Fertilizer Type (FT) | 0.50 ns | 3.91 ns | 0.00 ns | 1.18 ns | 0.01 ns | |
CC × FT | 0.87 ns | 0.14 ns | 0.00 ns | 0.00 ns | 0.48 ns | |
Within Subjects | ||||||
Year (Y) | 2.71 ns | 271.24 *** | 235.52 *** | 503.09 *** | 221.67 *** | |
Y × CC | 0.17 ns | 0.14 ns | 1.08 ns | 0.13 ns | 0.26 ns | |
Y × FT | 3.47 ns | 14.96 *** | 14.44 *** | 6.47 ** | 1.35 ns | |
Y × CC × FT | 0.39 ns | 0.07 ns | 0.35 ns | 0.02 ns | 0.71 ns |
Variance Explained | PC1 (33.2%) | PC2 (19.1%) | PC3 (15.5%) | PC4 (9.5%) | PC5 (5.9%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exc K (mg kg−1) | 0.884 | 0.286 | −0.269 | −0.068 | 0.051 |
Exc Mg (mg kg−1) | 0.876 | −0.208 | −0.365 | 0.065 | 0.094 |
Dhs Activity (µmol INTF g−1 h−1) | 0.852 | 0.033 | −0.376 | 0.167 | 0.175 |
P in Seeds (mg kg−1) | 0.849 | 0.173 | −0.385 | 0.037 | 0.205 |
Mg in Seeds (mg kg−1) | 0.827 | 0.143 | −0.325 | 0.107 | 0.229 |
K in Seeds (mg kg−1) | 0.822 | 0.229 | −0.420 | 0.070 | 0.183 |
Ca in Seeds (mg kg−1) | 0.807 | 0.064 | −0.391 | 0.161 | 0.262 |
Exc Ca (mg kg−1) | 0.797 | 0.372 | −0.378 | −0.029 | 0.162 |
Crop Yield (kg ha−1) | −0.773 | −0.081 | 0.427 | −0.044 | −0.269 |
Ure Activity (µmol NH4+ g−1 h−1) | 0.749 | −0.386 | 0.049 | 0.106 | −0.165 |
NH4+ (mg kg−1) | −0.672 | −0.187 | −0.052 | −0.119 | 0.054 |
Aryl Activity (µmol PNP g−1 h−1) | −0.603 | 0.141 | 0.135 | −0.327 | 0.015 |
B (mg kg−1) | 0.211 | 0.928 | −0.121 | −0.05 | 0.131 |
Cel Activity (nmol gearbox sugars g−1 h−1) | −0.280 | 0.855 | −0.013 | −0.120 | 0.058 |
AS (%) | −0.361 | −0.723 | 0.354 | −0.016 | −0.220 |
Exc Na (mg kg−1) | 0.557 | 0.723 | −0.115 | −0.016 | 0.209 |
P (mg kg−1) | −0.605 | −0.658 | 0.167 | 0.047 | −0.211 |
β-Glm Activity (µmol PNP g−1 h−1) | 0.332 | −0.587 | −0.042 | 0.071 | 0.276 |
RC (%) | −0.261 | −0.584 | 0.400 | −0.232 | −0.473 |
β-Glu Activity (µmol PNP g−1 h−1) | 0.087 | 0.532 | 0.238 | −0.516 | 0.217 |
EC (µS m−1) | −0.449 | 0.077 | 0.822 | −0.063 | −0.069 |
pH | 0.236 | 0.347 | −0.798 | −0.057 | 0.127 |
NO3− | −0.496 | 0.354 | 0.731 | 0.00 | −0.182 |
Nt (g kg−1) | −0.338 | −0.433 | 0.688 | −0.218 | −0.193 |
SOC (g kg−1) | −0.338 | −0.344 | 0.653 | −0.046 | 0.305 |
Protein in Seeds (%) | −0.368 | −0.029 | −0.056 | 0.942 | 0.091 |
N in Seeds (g kg−1) | 0.187 | −0.029 | −0.056 | 0.942 | 0.091 |
Weight of 100 Seeds (g) | −0.026 | −0.556 | 0.235 | 0.581 | 0.177 |
LC (%) | 0.261 | 0.242 | −0.132 | 0.154 | 0.784 |
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Sánchez-Navarro, V.; Zornoza, R.; Faz, Á.; Fernández, J.A. Cowpea Crop Response to Mineral and Organic Fertilization in SE Spain. Processes 2021, 9, 822. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9050822
Sánchez-Navarro V, Zornoza R, Faz Á, Fernández JA. Cowpea Crop Response to Mineral and Organic Fertilization in SE Spain. Processes. 2021; 9(5):822. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9050822
Chicago/Turabian StyleSánchez-Navarro, Virginia, Raúl Zornoza, Ángel Faz, and Juan Antonio Fernández. 2021. "Cowpea Crop Response to Mineral and Organic Fertilization in SE Spain" Processes 9, no. 5: 822. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9050822