1. Introduction
There are more than 7.7 billion people on this planet, with forecasts predicting the population to grow to 9.7 billion by 2050 [
1]. Securing a sustainable food supply for humankind is therefore becoming a major challenge. Diets with a high share of animal proteins must be adapted in order to ensure that demand is not outstripping production [
2,
3]. Furthermore, the consumption of meat and meat products in larger portions is associated with higher risk of cardiovascular, coronary and cerebrovascular diseases, stroke, diabetes type 2 and colorectal cancer [
4].
In addition to these health issues, meat production chains have a considerable impact on the environment through the use of land, the application of fertilisers, greenhouse emissions and water consumption, resulting in the loss of biodiversity and enhancing climate change [
5,
6,
7,
8]. It causes more emissions per unit of energy compared with plant-based foods because energy is lost at each trophic level. Meat production is the most important source of methane, which has a relatively high global warming potential, but a lower half-life in the environment compared with that of CO
2 [
9]. The carbon footprint of plant-based foods on average is twice as low as the impact of pork [
10], while the impact in some other categories can be more than 60 times lower [
11]. We also highlight that meat and meat products are associated with severe animal welfare issues, such as pigtail docking, poultry debeaking, calve separation and mistreatment in slaughterhouses [
12,
13].
Integrating new protein sources into the diet as a solution for the mentioned problems means overcoming barriers such as traditional meat consumption across many cultures [
14]. Recent research put forward the idea that consumers have an affective connection with meat (meat attachment) that may play a role in their willingness to change consumption habits [
15]. It is argued that the affection towards meat may represent a continuum in which one end refers to disgust (i.e., negative affect and repulsion, related to moral internalization), while the other shows a pattern of attachment (i.e., high positive affect and dependence towards meat, as well as feelings of sadness and deprivation when considering abstaining from meat consumption) that may hinder a change in consumption habits [
15]. Likewise, food neophobia, which refers to the reluctance to eat unfamiliar foods [
16], may represent a barrier for a transition to a more sustainable diet. According to Apostolidis and McLeay [
17], low levels of acceptance of meat substitutes have been associated with high levels of the construct food neophobia.
For increasing the share of plant proteins in the diet, there are several options. An approach could be the usage of textured soy protein, mushrooms, wheat gluten, pulses, etc., as a complete substitute for animal protein. Another opportunity is to replace only a fraction of the meat product (e.g., 20% to 50%) with plant-based proteins [
18]. As mentioned in many countries, consumers are highly attached to meat and consider it as an essential and integral element of their daily diet [
15]. So-called meathybrids may be an option for the broad consumer segment that is not interested in totally vegan or vegetarian alternatives to meat. Therefore, meathybrids could serve as a low-threshold offer for this group, facilitating the transition in the direction toward a more healthy and sustainable diet. In this context, it has to be mentioned that consumer preferences are in particular affected by the products’ sensory characteristics. An inferior or low sensory quality can constitute a critical barrier for the market entry of meat substitutes [
19,
20]. Therefore, meat substitutes, respectively meathybrids, must catch up with real meat products concerning sensory characteristics.
As with many novel technologies, consumers’ lack of understanding of hybrid meat products may lead to scepticism and ultimately to the rejection of these. Through early integration of consumer demand and preferences into the development process, more suitable hybrid products can be designed. Understanding the decision-making process will help to develop tailored communication messages that highlight its benefits as a sustainable and healthy alternative to regular meat products.
The study aims at identifying consumer attitudes and preferences for meat alternatives such as meathybrids. Based on a concise literature overview, a representative online survey was carried out in Germany and Belgium including a Discrete Choice Experiment (DCE) for four product categories (meat balls, chicken nuggets, salami, and mortadella).
2. Data Collection and Methods of Data Analysis
Consumer data were collected using a quantitative online survey approach. The respondents were panellists and were recruited by the market research company Savanta (London, UK). The questionnaire comprised questions about general meat consumption, on the one hand, and specific questions concerning preferences for meat substitutes, on the other.
So-called choice experiments were integrated in the survey for measuring the importance and preference of different levels of plant-based protein shares in mortadella, salami, chicken nuggets, and meat balls. Choice experiments have been shown to reduce social desirability bias [
21], as individuals often display socially desirable preferences in surveys [
22].
The online survey was carried out in Germany with 500 and in Belgium with 501 respondents. Participants had to be meat eaters, and thus, vegetarians and vegans were sorted out a priori. Furthermore, the participants had to be 50% responsible for food shopping in the household. Concerning the age, respondents had to be in the range of 18 to 69 years. Data collection took place in the time period from 8 November until 19 November 2019 (see
Table 1). Both samples are approximately representative in relation to gender and the region of residence (federal states). For the age, we highlight that the age group from 50–59 years was somewhat under-represented, whereas the age group from 60–69 years was over-represented in both countries.
In the Results Section, we report descriptive results. For scale development, Cronbach’s alpha was applied [
23]. Furthermore, confirmatory factor analyses were run to confirm the validity of the scales by using the R-package psych [
24]. For measuring food neophobia, the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS) of Pliner and Hobden [
16] was selected. The wording of the German version was chosen from a study by [
25]. Participants answered on a five-point response scale that was verbally and numerically anchored (1 = totally disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither disagree nor agree, 4 = agree, 5 = totally agree). The five-point scale was used instead of the originally used seven-point scale for a better display of the questionnaire on tablets and smartphones. The items indicated with (r) in Table 6 were inversely re-coded. Considering that the inclusion of invalid items creates the risk of invalid conclusion [
26], a principal components analysis (varimax rotation, eigenvalues greater than one) was carried out to explain the variability of the FNS followed by a confirmatory factor analysis [
27]. For measuring consumers’ meat attachment, participants answered a five-point Meat Attachment Scale (MEAS) [
28] that was verbally and numerically anchored (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither disagree nor agree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree). The items indicated with (r) in Table 5 were inversely re-coded. In this study, the Health Consciousness Scale (HS) in the style of Visschers et al. [
29] was selected for measuring the impact of this psychometric construct on the choice of hybrid products.
Furthermore, a multinomial logistic regression model was applied for measuring the impact of several parameters on the the choice of meat and meathybrid products. Data were collected via a Discrete Choice Experiment (DCE).
2.1. Discrete Choice Experiment and Experimental Design
The DCE method is based on micro-economic theory according to which consumers always try to maximize their benefit [
30]. In DCEs, consumers must choose from a set of different products offered at determined prices. The products differ regarding the tested product attributes (e.g., share of local feed, price, etc.). According to micro-economic theory, participants will choose the product with the highest benefit. By means of DCEs, consumers’ benefit for each tested product attribute can thus be revealed, as well as the influence of each product attribute on the probability of purchasing/choosing the product. In the DCE of this study, the products varied by six attributes: plant-based protein share, EU organic label, origin label for the protein source, environmental claim, nutritional label, and price (see
Table 2). The EU organic label was included since previous studies had shown the importance of this aspect to consumers. The five price levels used in the choice experiment were within the price range that encompassed observed market prices at food retailers in Germany during the winter of 2018/1019. The reported attributes and attribute levels were used for generating the experimental design of the choice experiment. The DCE was carried out for four product categories (meatballs, mortadella, salami, chicken nuggets) on the basis of the same underling experimental design structure.
In each choice set, consumers had a choice between four product alternatives and a no-choice option. The no-choice option was included to get a more realistic purchase situation and thus raise the validity of the data [
31]. Furthermore, there was always one 100% meat option and one vegetarian option in the sets, whereas for two options, the plant-based protein share varied between 50% and 20%.
A D-efficient unlabelled design (0.949) was generated using the software Ngene [
32], and for each product category, eight choice sets were generated. Thus, in total, there were 32 choice sets. The priors used were based on expert judgement and the literature.
Each participant received two choice sets from each product category and thus had to answer in total eight choice sets. The survey order of the choice sets of the alternatives was randomised to prevent ordering effects [
33]. The products, respectively the characteristics, are depicted in photographs (see
Table 3).
2.2. Multinomial Logistic Regression
Multinomial logistic regression is the regression analysis to conduct when the dependent variable is nominal with more than two levels. It is used to model nominal outcome variables, in which the log odds of the outcomes are modelled as a linear combination of the predictor variables. The multinomial logistic model belongs to the family of generalized linear models and as mentioned is used when the response variable is a categorical variable. Suppose that variable
represents the offered alternatives in a choice experiment (e.g., the choice between meat and meathybrid), with
i = 1, …,
n, and
n is the number of possible product alternatives. In the case that
n equals 2,
Y has outcomes
and
. Both the counts of
and
follow a binomial distribution. The probability of occurrence of
is
and that of
is
. Logistic regression relates probability
to a set of predictors using the logit link function:
where
x is a vector of predictors (e.g., FNS, MEAS or buying frequency of organic meat) and
is a vector of model coefficients that are typically estimated by maximum likelihood. Equation (
1) can be rewritten as:
The quotient in Equation (
2) is referred to as the odds. From Equation (
2), it follows that:
The binomial logistic regression model is easily generalized to the multinomial case. If there are
n product alternatives, there are also
n variables
, …,
with corresponding probabilities of occurrence
, …,
. Analogous to binomial logistic regression, the odds
/
, …,
/
are modelled by means of
, …,
. From
, it follows that:
where
= 0. This model ensures that all probabilities are in the interval [0, 1] and that the probabilities sum to 1.
In this paper, the dependent variable is taken from the DCE where respondents had to indicate if they would buy/choose one out of the four offered options or none of these options. The FNS, HS and MEAS, as well as other parameters (e.g., FAMILIARITY= buying frequency of meat substitutes) entered the regression analysis as independent variables. In addition, all three scales were interacted with the different levels of the attribute “plant-based protein share” for analysing their effect on meat, hybrids and the vegetarian alternative.
Given the theoretical background, an model was built according to the following expression:
From the estimation results, odds ratios are calculated. Odds ratios in logistic regression can be interpreted as the effect of one unit of change in X in the predicted odds ratio with the other variables in the model held constant.
In this study, for estimating the specified model, the software R [
34] and the package mlogit [
35] were used. For the visualisation of the odds ratios from the estimated model, the package sjplot [
36] was applied.
4. Discussion and Conclusions
The results show that more than fifty percent of consumers substitute meat at least occasionally. Thus, about half of the respondents revealed an eligible consumption behaviour with respect to sustainability and healthiness, at least sometimes. Furthermore, about a fifth indicated sometimes consuming, respectively frequently, meat alternatives such as veggie burgers. However, most of the consumed meat alternatives had an animal origin (dairy products, fish, eggs), which, like meat production, come along with an environmental burden. In this context, we highlight, that the findings of this study demonstrate that at least a substantial amount of consumers are open-minded to the “meathybrid” concept. Even a higher share believes that this new alternative is better for the environment and the animals in comparison to meat. In the DCE, the tested meathybrid variants with different shares of plant-based proteins took the second position, followed by the vegetarian-based alternative. Therefore, meathybrids could facilitate the diet transition of meat-eaters in the direction toward a more sustainable consumption. The analysed consumer segment was more open-minded to the meathybrid concept in comparison to the vegetarian substitutes. Thus, there is chance that hybrids could serve as a low-threshold option for a transition in the direction toward a more sustainable diet.
Nonetheless, on the road-map of this transition, some major problems and issues have to be tackled. Other research [
39,
40] suggested that the current meathybrids and meat replacers are still relatively unfamiliar and that their image in relation to the expected taste as shown in this study is quite mixed. While meathybrids have a plant-based protein share, they are not necessarily optimal from an environmental perspective, because their processing stage can require a considerable input of energy, and they often contain a high share of egg protein [
41,
42]. Although technological development has led to improvements in the quality of meathybrids in recent years, it is still important to develop improved meathybrids and meat substitutes, which are significantly better and superior compared to meat in several ways, such as taste, texture and environmental performance with a lower input of energy and egg whites [
43,
44].
Despite the technological challenges, there are cultural, respectively socio-cultural challenges as well. As shown, meat attachment as a psychological construct represents a barrier for diet change and transition. Future research should address this topic in more detail and analyse how to overcome this attitude.
Concerning the impact factors on choosing either meathybrids or meat, it becomes obvious that familiarity with meat substitutes, respectively their former use, plays a great role in preference formation. Therefore, it can be recommended to increase the share of meat substitutes/meathybrids in school/public canteens and to financially support other canteens that replace meat with plant substitutes or hybrids. Herewith, consumers are confronted more often with meat alternatives, and familiarity with such products can be built up on a mid- to long-term time horizon.