The Sources, Synthesis and Biological Actions of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids in Red Meat: An Overview
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Synthesis
2.1. Molecular Structure of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids
2.2. Biosynthesis of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids
3. Sources
3.1. Feeding Type and Digestive System of Ruminants
3.2. Digestion, Absorption and Deposition of Dietary Lipids in Tissue of Livestock
3.3. Factors Affecting Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acid Deposition in Muscle Tissues (Meat) of Ruminants
- A.
- Type of based diet: It has been well established that pasture feeding systems or fodder feeds containing silage produce meat with more n-3 PUFA than the grain feeding or lot feeding system. Green leafy materials contain more ALA in the chloroplasts, whereas the grain-based or cereal-based diets often contain more LA and MUFA. For example, a high concentration of LA and AA is found in meat from ruminants consuming grain-based feeds in contrast to ruminants consuming brassica-based feeds or lucerne (alfalfa) pasture-based feeds which have more ALA, EPA and DHA in their meat [35].
- B.
- Type of supplement (ingredient) used in the diet: Supplementation of oilseeds and meals from sunflower, safflower, corn and cotton to ruminant diets could elevate n-6 PUFA whilst flax, canola, chia and camelina can increase the concentration of n-3 PUFA within meat [36]. LA is found in most plant and cereal seeds and is abundantly available naturally for ruminant consumption. Therefore, it is expected that the concentration of n-6 PUFA would be greater than n-3 PUFA and lead to a higher n-6/n-3 ratio in the meat from these animals.
- C.
- Form of lipid present in the diet: It has been reported that the efficacy of direct absorption of product FAs (AA, EPA and DHA) were greater than parent FA (LA and ALA). For example, when EPA and DHA were directly consumed by ruminants as algae or fish oil supplementation, the deposition of EPA and DHA were greater than when feeding diet containing ALA (flaxseed) to increase the concentration of EPA and DHA within cells and tissues [6,20,21], and the same outcomes can be applied to other n-6 PUFA. Moreover, the ratio of EPA, DHA and ALA to the total PUFA in the diet can determine the amounts of EPA, DHA or ALA absorbed at the enterocyte and further deposition at the peripheral tissue sites [22].
- D.
- Competition between desaturation and elongation enzymes: The affinity of FADS2 for ALA is greater than LA. Nevertheless, high intake of LA or high concentration of dietary LA can adversely affect the conversion of ALA within tissues. The nature of the current animal production systems prefers the application of concentrate feeding for fast growth and quick turn over to market, offering large quantity of dietary LA available for animal consumption and this results in greater deposition of LA and AA than their counterparts of ALA and its derivatives EPA, DHA or DPA [37]. A recent study indicated that the application of forages, such as lucerne hay around 50%, in the mixed ration, compared with a ration containing 50% of grain made of barley and oats, significantly altered the concentration of ALA, LA, and EPA of muscle fat in two sheep types of diverse genetics namely pure Merino and Crossbred sheep. This same study showed a diet by breed interaction that was proposed to be the result of different concentration of ALA and LA being deposited in muscle fat of those two genetics, allowing for domination of one type of FA on another when deposited at or above certain concentrations in the muscle fat [38]. When the animals were fed lucerne hay diet, the crossbred lambs produced higher ALA in the tissues and had 20 mg higher ALA/100 g tissue than the Merino lambs (ALA concentrations for Crossbred and Merino animals were 50 vs. 31 mg/100 g muscle). This was not observed in animals fed the grain-based diet, and the ALA concentrations for crossbred and Merino animals were 30 vs. 15 mg/100 g muscle. The greater ALA concentration in muscle tissues from crossbred lambs fed the lucerne hay diet might have suppressed the LA deposition whilst enhancing the elongation process of ALA to its longer chain EPA. The LA concentrations for crossbred and Merino animals fed lucerne hay diet were 103 vs. 95 mg/100 g muscle while the values for grain fed sheep were 168 vs. 138 mg/100 g muscle, respectively.
- E.
- Availability of secondary metabolites: Animal feeds contain a vast range of secondary metabolites called phytonutrients. Pastures, fodder crops and higher plant species produce (secrete) these phytonutrients in their body for their protection, survival and establishment against disease, pest and harsh climate under various conditions. These phytonutrients have health enhancing compounds and animals may selectively consume these pastures, fodders and other by-products of field crops to support their good health and wellbeing. Phytonutrients are classified as alkaloids, polyphenols, organosulfur compounds and so on. It is likely that animal feeds containing some types of polyphenols, such as tannins, phenolic acids and flavonoids, can protect dietary PUFA from the hydrolysis and biohydrogenation in the rumen resulting in beneficial effects. Hence, increased n-3 LCPUFA would be available for absorption across enterocytes and, therefore, have increased deposition within tissue and meat. This is possibly due to these phytonutrients having low bioavailability and long retention times within the rumen, causing a slow degradation of fibrous diets by the microflora and allowing the PUFA and other nutrients present in the diet to bypass the rumen and be available for intestinal absorption by host animals.
- F.
- Level of antioxidants and carotenoids in muscle tissues: Ruminants are specialised to consume 80–85% of diet as forage (fibrous materials) such as green pastures, fodders, silage and other forage materials. From these diets, they ingest adequate amounts of antioxidants, such as vitamins, minerals and carotenoids. Monogastric animals grown under intensive systems consume 80–85% concentrated diets and they receive carotenoids and antioxidants from the ingredients of cereal grains, protein meal and oilseeds. Carotenoids, such as carotenes and xanthophylls, are pigments present in leaves, seeds, fruits and animal products of blood, meat and milk. Carotenoids have the ability to act as antioxidants as they are quenchers of singlet oxygen (1O2) and other reactive oxygen species (ROS) or substances that causes oxidative damage in the body from cell to tissue level. The biological roles of carotenoids and polyphenols in the ruminant digestive system and their metabolism are not yet fully understood. It is speculated that increased level of antioxidant potential in the circulatory and tissue systems can protect the oxidation of n-3 LCPUFA from the tissues. This improves the health and wellbeing of individuals. For example, several studies [7,21,35,36,37] described the relationship among antioxidants, n-3 PUFA and lipid oxidation in muscle tissues in sheep and goats.
4. Biological Actions
5. Dietary Recommendation
6. Concentration Range in Red Meats
7. Preservation until the Point of Consumption
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Common Name | Abbreviations | Systematic Name |
---|---|---|
Linoleic acid | C18:2n-6 (LA) | cis-9, cis-12-octadecatrienoic acid |
Alpha-linolenic acid | C18:3n-3 (ALA) | cis-9, cis-12, cis-15-octadecatrienoic acid |
Stearidonic acid | C18:4n-3 (SDA) | cis-6, -9, -12, -15-octadecatetraenoic acid |
Arachidonic acid | C20:4n-6 (AA) | cis-5, -8, -11, -14-eicosatetraenoic acid |
Eicosapentaenoic acid | C20:5n-3 (EPA) | cis-5, -8, -11, -14, -17-eicosapentaenoic acid |
Adrenic acid | C22:4n-6 (AdA) | cis-7, -10, -13, -16-docosatetraenoic acid |
Docosapentaenoic acid | C22:5n-3 (DPA) | cis-7, -10, -13, -16, -19-docosapentaenoic acid |
Docosahexaenoic acid | C22:6n-3 (DHA) | Cis-4, -7, -10, -13, -16, -19-docosahexaenoic acid |
Common Name | Chemical Structure |
---|---|
Linoleic acid | |
Alpha-linolenic acid | |
Stearidonic acid | |
Arachidonic acid | |
Eicosapentaenoic acid | |
Adrenic acid | |
Docosapentaenoic acid | |
Docosahexaenoic acid | |
Organisation | n-3 | n-6 | LCPUFA |
---|---|---|---|
NHMRC [46] Australia and New Zealand | M: 1.3 g/day ALA F: 0.8|1.0|1.2 g/day ALA | M: 13 g/day LA F: 8|10|12 g/day LA | M: 160 mg/day LCPUFA F: 90|110–115|140–145 mg/day LC-PUFA |
Health Canada [47] Canada | M: 1.6 g/day ALA F: 1.1|1.4|1.3 g/day ALA | M: 14–17 g/day LA F: 11–12|13|13 g/day LA | - |
EFSA [44] Europe Union | 4.0%E | 0.5%E | 250 mg/day EPA + DHA +100–200 mg/day DHA (during pregnancy or lactation) |
[48] France | 0.8%E ALA | 2.0%E LA | Min. physiological requirement: DHA 0.1 E% |
MHLW [49] Japan | M: 2.0–2.4 g/day (total) F: 1.1|1.4|1.3 g/day (total) | M: 8–11 g/day (total) F: 7–8|9|9 g/day (total)b | |
MVO [50] The Netherlands | 1%E ALA | 2%E LA | 450 mg/day EPA + DHA |
Bartrina and Majem [51] Spain | 1–2%E ALA | 5%E LA | 500–1000 mg/day EPA + DHA |
Otten [52] United States of America | 5–10%E | 20–35%E | 10%E EPA + DHA |
Food and Nutrition Board [53] United States of America | M: 1.2–1.6 g/day ALA F: 1.1–1.2|1.3|1.3 g/day ALA | M: 14–17 g/day (total) F: 21–26|28|29 g/day (total)b | 2 g/day U-AMDR |
FAO [54] United Nations | 0.5%E ALA | 2.5%E LA | - |
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Ponnampalam, E.N.; Sinclair, A.J.; Holman, B.W.B. The Sources, Synthesis and Biological Actions of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids in Red Meat: An Overview. Foods 2021, 10, 1358. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10061358
Ponnampalam EN, Sinclair AJ, Holman BWB. The Sources, Synthesis and Biological Actions of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids in Red Meat: An Overview. Foods. 2021; 10(6):1358. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10061358
Chicago/Turabian StylePonnampalam, Eric N., Andrew J. Sinclair, and Benjamin W. B. Holman. 2021. "The Sources, Synthesis and Biological Actions of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids in Red Meat: An Overview" Foods 10, no. 6: 1358. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10061358