Development of Functional Foods: A Comparative Study on the Polyphenols and Anthocyanins Content in Chokeberry and Blueberry Pomace Extracts and Their Antitumor Properties
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Chemicals and Reagents
2.2. Plant Material and Pomace Preparation
2.3. Total Phenolic Content (TPC)
2.4. Determination of Antioxidant Activity Using the 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Radical Scavenging Method
2.5. Identification and Quantification of Anthocyanins by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC) Analysis
2.6. Cell Culture and Treatment
2.7. Culture Medium and Cell Lysate Preparation
2.8. Lactate Dehydrogenase Activity Evaluation in the Culture Medium
2.9. Inflammatory Cytokines and MMPs Quantifications
2.10. Western Blot Assays
2.11. Statistical Analysis
2.12. Mathematical Models
3. Results
3.1. Chokeberry and Blueberry Pomace Extracts Characterization
3.1.1. Total Polyphenols Content
3.1.2. Anthocyanins Composition
3.1.3. Antioxidant Activity
3.1.4. Mathematical Models: Evaluation of the Dependence of Antioxidant Activity on Polyphenol and Anthocyanin Levels
3.2. Antiproliferative and Cytotoxic Effects of Chokeberry and Blueberry Fruit Pomace
3.3. Antioxidative Effects of Chokeberry and Blueberry Pomace Extracts
3.4. Evaluation of Potential Signaling Mechanisms Affected by Cells Exposure to Chokeberry and Blueberry Pomace Extracts
3.5. Cytokine Assessment and Inflammatory Response
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Assumption | Statement of the Assumption | Equation |
---|---|---|
H1 | The antioxidant activity (y) is determined only by the total concentration of polyphenols (x1) | |
H2 | The antioxidant activity (y) is predominantly determined by the concentration of anthocyanins (x2) | |
H3 | The antioxidant activity (y) is determined by the combined effects of polyphenols (x1) and anthocyanins (x2) in different proportions and according to different laws. |
Extraction Conditions | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
50% Ethanol | 70% Ethanol | 100% Ethanol | 0.5% Vinegar | Distilled Water | ||
Chokeberry (Cb) | Mean (mg GAE/g dw) ± SD | 48.6 ± 1.3 | 47.3 ± 1.1 | 51.1 ± 1.5 | 17.7 ± 0.3 | 9.0 ± 1.0 |
50% Ethanol | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | ||||
70% Ethanol | p < 0.05 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | |||
100% Ethanol | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | ||||
0.5% Vinegar | p < 0.001 | |||||
Blueberry (Bb) | Mean (mg GAE/g dw) ± SD | 10.8 ± 0.2 | 11.2 ± 0.5 | 4.1 ± 0.1 | 4.1 ± 0.2 | 3.8 ± 0.4 |
50% Ethanol | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | |||
70% Ethanol | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | |||
100% Ethanol | ||||||
0.5% Vinegar | ||||||
p-value Cb vs. Bb | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.01 |
Extraction Conditions | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
50% Ethanol | 70% Ethanol | 0.5% Vinegar | |||
Chokeberry (Cb) | Total anthocyanins (mg/g dw) Mean ± SD | 3.05 ± 0.49 | 2.26 ± 0.36 | 1.58 ± 0.17 | |
Anthocyanins composition (%) | Cyn 3-O-Gal | 68.9 | 64.6 | 75.0 | |
Cyn 3-O-Glu | 1.6 | 2.0 | 1.7 | ||
Cyn 3-O-Arb | 20.0 | 21.0 | 16.8 | ||
Cyn 3-O-Xyl | 9.5 | 12.3 | 6.4 | ||
p-value | 50% Ethanol | p < 0.01 | |||
70% Ethanol | p < 0.05 | ||||
Blueberry (Bb) | Total anthocyanins (mg/g dw) Mean ± SD | 3.15 ± 0.07 | 2.91 ± 0.03 | 0.83 ± 0.02 | |
Anthocyanins composition (%) | Del 3-O-Gal | 18.5 | 17.3 | nd | |
Cyn 3-O-Gal | 13.1 | 13.6 | 21.7 | ||
Cyn 3-O-Glu | 7.3 | 6.2 | nd | ||
Others | 61.1 | 62.9 | 78.8 | ||
p-value | 50% Ethanol | p < 0.01 | p < 0.001 | ||
70% Ethanol | p < 0.001 | ||||
p-value Total anthocyanins Cb vs. Bb | p < 0.05 | p < 0.001 |
Extraction Conditions | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
50% Ethanol | 70% Ethanol | 100% Ethanol | 0.5% Vinegar | Distilled Water | ||
Chokeberry (Cb) | Mean (mg TE/g dw) ± SD | 684 ± 18 | 697 ± 10 | 610 ± 7 | 298 ± 28 | 216 ± 8 |
50% Ethanol | p < 0.01 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | |||
70% Ethanol | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | |||
100% Ethanol | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | ||||
0.5% Vinegar | p < 0.01 | |||||
Blueberry (Bb) | Mean (mg TE/g dw) ± SD | 120 ± 2 | 127 ± 2 | 62 ± 2 | 50 ± 3 | 53 ± 1 |
50% Ethanol | p < 0.01 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | ||
70% Ethanol | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | |||
100% Ethanol | p < 0.01 | p < 0.001 | ||||
0.5% Vinegar | ||||||
p-value Cb vs. Bb | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 |
Assumption on the Determinant of Antioxidant Activity (y) | Model Label | Model Name | Equation | m | n | a | b | c | ER |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
H1 Polyphenols | H1.1 | Linear | 1 | N/A | 7.50 | N/A | 43.66 | 133.00 | |
H1.2 | Quadratic | 2 | N/A | 0.13 | N/A | 94.83 | 134.45 | ||
H1.3 | Cubic | 3 | N/A | <0.01 | N/A | 104.86 | 135.59 | ||
H1.4 | Fractional power | 0.93 | N/A | 9.89 | N/A | 35.24 | 132.99 | ||
H2 Anthocyanins ) | H2.1 | Linear | N/A | 1 | N/A | −32.51 | 189.41 | 64.04 | |
H2.2 | Quadratic | N/A | 2 | N/A | 0 | 118.31 | 72.55 | ||
H2.3 | Cubic | N/A | 3 | N/A | 1.66 | 1.02 | 67.42 | ||
H2.4 | Fractional power | N/A | 0.24 | N/A | 54.33 | 0.00 | 59.07 | ||
H3 Polyphenols without anthocyanins (x1−x2) and anthocyanins (x2) | H3.1 | Linear | 1 | 1 | 0.00 | 23.74 | 22.95 | 57.90 | |
H3.2 | Quadratic | 1 | 2 | 0.00 | 7.79 | 29.05 | 56.17 | ||
H3.3 | Cubic | 1 | 3 | 1.01 | 1.64 | 1.02 | 51.76 | ||
H3.4 | Partial fractional | 1 | 4.95 | 0.00 | 0.26 | 39.44 | 55.00 | ||
H3.5 | Fractional | 2.75 | 6.36 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.00 | 55.55 |
Lysate | Control | Chokeberry (Cb) 50 mg/mL | Blueberry (Bb) 50 mg/mL | Cb & Bb 50 mg/mL | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cytokine | Average (pg/mL) | Average (pg/mL) | Fold change p-value | Average (pg/mL) | Fold change p-value | Average (pg/mL) | Fold change p-value |
Chitinase-3-like 1 | 143.9 ± 4.7 | 49.8 ± 1.4 | 0.4 p < 0.001 | 35.5 ± 2.2 | 0.3 p < 0.001 | 42.7 + 0.9 | 0.3 p < 0.001 |
gp130 | 180.0 ± 5.8 | 165.0 ± 3.3 | 0.9 p < 0.05 | 110.9 ± 1.3 | 0.6 p < 0.001 | 115.3 ± 1.0 | 0.6 p < 0.001 |
IL-8 | 42.3 ± 2.5 | 24.2 ± 0.7 | 0.6 p < 0.001 | 14.4 ± 0.7 | 0.4 p < 0.001 | 21.7 ± 1.0 | 0.5 p < 0.001 |
IL-32 | 62.1 ± 0.9 | 36.8 ± 1.5 | 0.6 p < 0.001 | 26.8 ± 2.3 | 0.4 p < 0.001 | 33.3 ± 1.9 | 0.5 p < 0.001 |
IL-35 | 21.1 ± 0.6 | 43.9 ± 0.3 | 2.1 p < 0.001 | 57.1 ± 0.5 | 2.7 p < 0.001 | 53.3 ± 0.6 | 2.5 p < 0.001 |
LIGHT | 14.0 ± 0.4 | 35.5 ± 0.8 | 2.4 p < 0.001 | 45.4 ± 0.3 | 3.2 p < 0.001 | 36.1 ± 0.7 | 2.6 p < 0.001 |
MMP-1 | 87.1 ± 0.6 | 54.4 ± 0.7 | 0.6 p < 0.001 | 42.4 ± 0.7 | 0.5 p < 0.001 | 49.6 ± 0.4 | 0.6 p < 0.001 |
MMP-2 | 104.8 ± 1.3 | 72.9 ± 1.1 | 0.7 p < 0.001 | 57.9 ± 1.1 | 0.6 p < 0.001 | 63.2 ± 0.7 | 0.6 p < 0.001 |
MMP-3 | 36.4 ± 0.4 | 29.1 ± 0.8 | 0.8 p < 0.001 | 21.1 ± 0.1 | 0.6 p < 0.001 | 27.8 ± 0.2 | 0.8 p < 0.001 |
TSLP | 18.8 ± 0.5 | 43.4 ± 0.4 | 2.3 p < 0.001 | 89.3 ± 0.5 | 4.8 p < 0.001 | 72.4 ± 0.5 | 3.9 p < 0.001 |
Culture Medium | Control | Chokeberry (Cb) 50 mg/mL | Blueberry (Bb) 50 mg/mL | Cb& Bb 50 mg/mL | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cytokine | Average (pg/mL) | Average (pg/mL) | Fold change p-value | Average (pg/mL) | Fold change p-value | Average (pg/mL) | Fold change p-value |
Chitinase-3-like 1 | 286.2 ± 15.8 | 76.1 ± 39.6 | 0.3 p < 0.01 | 78.2 ± 1.5 | 0.3 p < 0.001 | 85.4 ± 0.8 | 0.3 p < 0.001 |
gp130 | 257.2 ± 24.4 | 103.7 ± 6.1 | 0.4 p < 0.001 | 64.7 ± 3.1 | 0.3 p < 0.001 | 89.7 ± 1.6 | 0.4 p < 0.001 |
IL-8 | 64.1 ± 1.3 | 29.8 ± 1.0 | 0.5 p < 0.001 | 19.1 ± 0.5 | 0.3 p < 0.001 | 23.4 ± 0.5 | 0.4 p < 0.001 |
IL-32 | 76.7 ± 0.3 | 58.9 ± 0.8 | 0.8 p < 0.001 | 50.4 ± 0.7 | 0.7 p < 0.001 | 52.4 ± 1.1 | 0.7 p < 0.001 |
IL-35 | 26.9 ± 0.2 | 61.4 ± 1.2 | 2.3 p < 0.001 | 97.6 ± 4.2 | 3.6 p < 0.001 | 68.6 ± 1.4 | 2.6 p < 0.001 |
LIGHT | 17.7 ± 0.2 | 55.0 ± 0.6 | 3.1 p < 0.001 | 74.4 ± 1.1 | 4.2 p < 0.001 | 65.5 ± 0.6 | 3.7 p < 0.001 |
MMP-1 | 138.6 ± 0.6 | 65.9 ± 0.5 | 0.5 p < 0.001 | 47.8 ± 0.7 | 0.3 p < 0.001 | 60.7 ± 0.5 | 0.4 p < 0.001 |
MMP-2 | 167.7 ± 0.4 | 84.9 ± 0.5 | 0.5 p < 0.001 | 61.6 ± 0.6 | 0.4 p < 0.001 | 74.0 ± 0.3 | 0.4 p < 0.001 |
MMP-3 | 43.3 ± 0.9 | 35.3 ± 0.9 | 0.8 p < 0.01 | 27.9 ± 0.5 | 0.6 p < 0.001 | 31.6 ± 0.6 | 0.7 p < 0.001 |
sTNF R1 | 41.0 ± 2.5 | 16.6 ± 4.2 | 0.4 p < 0.001 | 13.2 ± 0.7 | 0.3 p < 0.001 | 13.8 ± 0.4 | 0.3 p < 0.001 |
TSLP | 31.4 ± 0.3 | 187.8 ± 1.5 | 6.0 p < 0.001 | 288.5 ± 2.6 | 9.2 p < 0.001 | 241.3 ± 1.0 | 7.7 p < 0.001 |
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Stanca, L.; Bilteanu, L.; Bujor, O.C.; Ion, V.A.; Petre, A.C.; Bădulescu, L.; Geicu, O.I.; Pisoschi, A.M.; Șerban, A.I.; Ghimpeteanu, O.-M. Development of Functional Foods: A Comparative Study on the Polyphenols and Anthocyanins Content in Chokeberry and Blueberry Pomace Extracts and Their Antitumor Properties. Foods 2024, 13, 2552. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162552
Stanca L, Bilteanu L, Bujor OC, Ion VA, Petre AC, Bădulescu L, Geicu OI, Pisoschi AM, Șerban AI, Ghimpeteanu O-M. Development of Functional Foods: A Comparative Study on the Polyphenols and Anthocyanins Content in Chokeberry and Blueberry Pomace Extracts and Their Antitumor Properties. Foods. 2024; 13(16):2552. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162552
Chicago/Turabian StyleStanca, Loredana, Liviu Bilteanu, Oana Crina Bujor, Violeta Alexandra Ion, Andrei Cătălin Petre, Liliana Bădulescu, Ovidiu Ionut Geicu, Aurelia Magdalena Pisoschi, Andreea Iren Șerban, and Oana-Mărgărita Ghimpeteanu. 2024. "Development of Functional Foods: A Comparative Study on the Polyphenols and Anthocyanins Content in Chokeberry and Blueberry Pomace Extracts and Their Antitumor Properties" Foods 13, no. 16: 2552. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162552