Influences of Depulping, Pod Storage and Fermentation Time on Fermentation Dynamics and Quality of Ghanaian Cocoa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Overview of Experiments
2.2. Pod Storage, Depulping, Fermentation, Drying and Sampling
2.3. Analyses during Fermentation and Drying, and of the Dried Cocoa Beans
2.3.1. Measurements of Pulp Content and pH of Cotyledon
2.3.2. Measurement of Temperatures in Fermentation Heaps
2.3.3. Sugar and Organic Acid Analysis by HPLC, during Fermentation and of the Dried Beans
2.3.4. Assessing the Viability of the Cocoa Embryo after Fermentation, and Cut-Tests of Dried Beans
2.3.5. Fermentation Index (FI) of the Dried Beans
2.4. Production and Analyses of Cocoa Liquor
2.4.1. Production of Cocoa Liquor
2.4.2. Sensory Analysis
2.4.3. Analysis of Selected Key-Aroma Compounds and Tastants in the Cocoa Liquor
Chemicals and Reagents
- Chemicals used for sample preparation, extraction and quantitation of selected polyphenols and alkaloids:
- Chemicals used for sample preparation, extraction and quantitation of selected aroma compounds:
Measurement of Selected Key Tastants
- Extraction for analysis of selected polyphenols and alkaloids
- Quantitation of selected polyphenols and alkaloids by HPLC-UV-MS
Measurement of Selected Key Aroma Compounds
- Sample Work-Up
- Quantitation of odorants by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)
2.5. Statistics
3. Results
3.1. Post-Harvesting Process Monitoring and Quality of Dried Cocoa Beans
3.1.1. Pulp Content
3.1.2. Cotyledon pH during Fermentation and in Dried Beans
3.1.3. Temperature Development in Fermentation Heaps
3.1.4. Sugars and Organic Acids during Fermentation and in the Dried Beans
3.1.5. Viability of Cocoa Embryo after Fermentation and Cut-Test of Dried Beans
3.1.6. Fermentation Index of Dried Beans
3.2. Results of Cocoa Liquors Analyses
3.2.1. Sensory Evaluation
3.2.2. Chemical Analyses of Cocoa Liquor
Quantification of Selected Key Cocoa Tastants
Selected Key Aroma Compounds
3.3. Multivariate Analyses
3.3.1. Effects of Post-Harvesting Parameters on Selected Quality Parameters of Dried Beans
3.3.2. Principal Component Analysis for Sensory Analysis and Heat-Map Clustering for Chemical Analyses
4. Discussion
4.1. Influences of Depulping on Fermentation Dynamics and the Quality of the Dried Beans and the Cocoa Liquor
4.2. Influences of Pod Storage on Fermentation Dynamics and the Quality of Dried Beans and Cocoa Liquor
4.3. Influence of Fermentation Time on the Quality of Dried Beans and Cocoa Liquor
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Experimental Run | Fermentation Variation | Total Repetitions 1 | Pod Storage (Days) | Depulping Process | Fermentation Time (Days) | Fermentation Time (h) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | PS1D1d3 | n = 2 × 2 | 1 | with | 3 | 64 (run 1); 69 (run 2) |
PS1D1d4 | n = 2 × 2 | 1 | with | 4 | 92 (run 1); 91 (run 2) | |
PS1D1d5 | n = 2 × 2 | 1 | with | 5 | 116 (run 1); 115 (run 2) | |
PS1D0d5 | n = 2 × 2 | 1 | without | 5 | ||
B | PS1D0d6 | n = 2 × 2 | 1 | without | 6–6.5 | 156 (run 1); 147 (run 2) |
PS1D1d6 | n = 2 × 2 | 1 | with | 6–6.5 | ||
PS3D0d6 | n = 2 × 2 | 3 | without | 6–6.5 | ||
PS3D1d6 | n = 2 × 2 | 3 | with | 6–6.5 | ||
C | PS1D0d5 | n = 2 × 3 | 1 | without | 5 | 120 (run 1), 116 (run 2), 118 (run 3) |
PS1D1d5 | n = 2 × 3 | 1 | with | 5 | ||
PS1D0d7 | n = 2 × 3 | 1 | without | 7 | 169 (run 1), 169 (run 2), 165 (run 3) | |
PS1D1d7 | n = 2 × 3 | 1 | with | 7 |
Category | Attributes | Definition | Scale |
---|---|---|---|
Basic taste | Acidity | Basic taste, perception of the intensity of acidity like a solution of citric acid or acetic acid | Low-intense |
Bitterness | Basic taste, perception of the intensity of bitterness like a caffeine solution | Low-intense | |
Trigeminal sensation | Astringency | Dry and rough mouthfeel | Low-intense |
Aroma (retronasal) | Fruity-citrus | Aroma perception, reminiscent of citrus fruits and bergamot | Low-intense |
Fruity-dried fruits | Aroma perception, reminiscent of dried fruits, like raisins | Low-intense | |
Cocoa | Aroma perception, reminiscent of cocoa powder | Low-intense | |
Nutty | Aroma perception, reminiscent of ripe, unroasted nuts | Low-intense | |
Woody | Aroma perception, reminiscent of dry wood | Low-intense | |
Spicy | Aroma perception, reminiscent of vanilla or tobacco | Low-intense | |
Herbal | Aroma perception, reminiscent of dried herbs, like vermouth | Low-intense | |
Basic taste | Roasty | Aroma perception, reminiscent of roasted bread / toasted bread | Low-intense |
Compound | Detection/Quantification | Linear Range (µg/mL) | Calibration Equation | R2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Catechin | MS/EIC | 1–100 | y = 309,070x + 3 × 106 | 0.9923 |
Epicatechin | MS/EIC | 1–100 | y = 293,036x + 3 × 106 | 0.9985 |
Procyanidine B2 | MS/EIC | 1–25 | y = 247,405x + 212,827 | 0.9978 |
Procyanidine C1 | MS/EIC | 1–25 | y = 93,519x + 16,054 | 0.9974 |
Cinnamtannin A2 | MS/EIC | 1–100 | y = 21,900x + 15,453 | 0.9968 |
Theobromine | UV/275 nm | 1–600 | y = 9.2645x + 56.775 | 0.9978 |
Caffeine | UV/275 nm | 1–300 | y = 8.4225x − 0.5098 | 1.0000 |
Variation | d0 | d1 | d2 | d3 | d4 | d5 | d6 | d7 1 | Dried | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Run A | PS1D1d3 | 6.57 ± 0.03 a | 6.44 ± 0.03 a | 6.33 ± 0.05 b | 6.10 ± 0.31 a | - | - | - | - | 5.87 ± 0.45 a |
PS1D1d4 | 6.57 ± 0.03 a | 6.47 ± 0.02 a | 6.39 ± 0.03 b | 6.09 ± 0.22 a | 5.67 ± 0.55 a | - | - | - | 5.79 ± 0.16 a | |
PS1D1d5 | 6.58 ± 0.02 a | 6.47 ± 0.05 a | 6.35 ± 0.04 b | 6.06 ± 0.20 a | 5.63 ± 0.50 a | 5.02 ± 0.32 a | - | - | 5.72 ± 0.32 a | |
PS1D0d5 | 6.43 ± 0.19 a | 6.48 ± 0.03 a | 6.48 ± 0.04 a | 5.72 ± 0.47 a | 5.15 ± 0.29 a | 4.78 ± 0.26 a | - | - | 5.42 ± 0.24 a | |
Run B | PS1D0d6 | 6.51 ± 0.02 b | 6.47 ± 0.02 a | 6.46 ± 0.03 a | 6.07 ± 0.21 a | 5.21 ± 0.24 a | 4.62 ± 0.02 a | 4.56 ± 0.04 a | 4.62 ± 0.00 * | 5.12 ± 0.08 b |
PS1D1d6 | 6.53 ± 0.04 ab | 6.40 ± 0.03 ab | 6.21 ± 0.11 ab | 5.61 ± 0.71 a | 5.15 ± 0.62 a | 4.64 ± 0.13 a | 4.63 ± 0.11 a | 4.70 ± 0.15 * | 5.24 ± 0.10 ab | |
PS3D0d6 | 6.54 ± 0.03 ab | 6.36 ± 0.07 ab | 6.23 ± 0.15 ab | 5.10 ± 0.29 a | 4.75 ± 0.22 a | 4.55 ± 0.07 a | 4.54 ± 0.05 a | 4.63 ± 0.22 * | 5.23 ± 0.06 ab | |
PS3D1d6 | 6.59 ± 0.02 a | 6.33 ± 0.10 b | 5.75 ± 0.58 b | 5.16 ± 0.63 a | 4.87 ± 0.39 a | 4.68 ± 0.10 a | 4.73 ± 0.19 a | 4.69 ± 0.03 * | 5.45 ± 0.16 a | |
Run C | PS1D0d5 | 6.44 ± 0.02 a | 6.36 ± 0.09 a | 6.08 ± 0.03 a | 4.84 ± 0.10 a | 4.75 ± 0.07 a | 4.83 ± 0.16 a | - | - | 5.23 ± 0.08 a |
PS1D1d5 | 6.46 ± 0.06 a | 6.27 ± 0.07 a | 5.73 ± 0.31 a | 4.80 ± 0.13 a | 4.78 ± 0.13 a | 4.96 ± 0.16 a | - | - | 5.45 ± 0.15 a | |
PS1D0d7 | 6.38 ± 0.03 a | 6.30 ± 0.08 a | 6.02 ± 0.09 a | 4.83 ± 0.07 a | 4.71 ± 0.20 a | 4.88 ± 0.30 a | 4.89 ± 0.16 a | 5.14 ± 0.49 a | 5.54 ± 0.23 a | |
PS1D1d7 | 6.44 ± 0.07 a | 6.27 ± 0.06 a | 5.71 ± 0.36 a | 4.92 ± 0.19 a | 4.86 ± 0.04 a | 4.93 ± 0.22 a | 4.93 ± 0.07 a | 5.33 ± 0.23 a | 5.65 ± 0.16 a |
Variation | d0 | d1 | d2 | d3 | d4 | d5 | d6 | d7 1 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Run A | PS1D1d3 | 29.2 ± 1.5 a | 33.2 ± 1.6 ab | 37.6 ± 4.1 a | 39.4 ± 5.4 b | - | - | - | - |
PS1D1d4 | 30.1 ± 2.1 a | 34.3 ± 1.4 a | 39.6 ± 3.4 a | 44.4 ± 2.2 a | 44.0 ± 0.8 a | - | - | - | |
PS1D1d5 | 29.4 ± 1.8 a | 33.3 ± 1.5 ab | 37.7 ± 3.5 a | 42.4 ± 3.0 ab | 43.7 ± 2.5 a | 43.4 ± 2.5 a | - | - | |
PS1D0d5 | 28.1 ± 0.5 a | 32.3 ± 0.8 b | 36.5 ± 3.1 a | 43.4 ± 2.4 ab | 45.6 ± 1.3 a | 44.6 ± 1.5 a | - | - | |
Ambient | 26.7 ± 2.8 (6 a.m.–6 p.m.) and 22.9 ± 0.7 (6 p.m.–6 a.m.) | ||||||||
Run B | PS1D0d6 | 28.0 ± 2.7 a | 33.2 ± 1.5 b | 37.1 ± 1.7 b | 42.8 ± 2.3 a | 46.2 ± 1.8 ab | 47.2 ± 1.1 ab | 44.5 ± 0.6 a | 44.4 ± 0.3 a |
PS1D1d6 | 29.3 ± 3.0 a | 35.0 ± 1.1 ab | 39.0 ± 2.7 ab | 43.9 ± 2.5 a | 45.0 ± 3.2 b | 46.3 ± 2.6 b | 43.9 ± 0.9 a | 43.0 ± 1.0 a | |
PS3D0d6 | 30.3 ± 3.3 a | 35.7 ± 1.5 a | 40.7 ± 2.8 ab | 45.5 ± 1.6 a | 48.4 ± 1.0 a | 48.6 ± 0.9 a | 44.8 ± 0.7 a | 43.9 ± 1.8 a | |
PS3D1d6 | 31.5 ± 1.3 a | 35.8 ± 1.7 a | 42.0 ± 3.1 a | 44.7 ± 3.0 a | 46.4 ± 1.4 ab | 47.0 ± 1.2 ab | 44.3 ± 1.3 a | 43.5 ± 2.5 a | |
Ambient | 26.1 ± 4.1 (6 a.m.–6 p.m.) and 25.7 ± 4.1 (6 p.m.–6 a.m.) | ||||||||
Run C | PS1D0d5 | 30.7 ± 1.9 a | 35.0 ± 2.5 c | 44.8 ± 2.8 a | 45.5 ± 1.6 a | 48.6 ± 1.3 a | 46.3 ± 2.0 a | - | - |
PS1D1d5 | 32.2 ± 2.7 a | 38.0 ± 2.5 ab | 46.5 ± 2.2 a | 46.1 ± 1.5 a | 48.5 ± 1.2 a | 47.0 ± 1.6 a | - | - | |
PS1D0d7 | 31.0 ± 1.3 a | 35.3 ± 1.9 bc | 44.9 ± 2.4 a | 45.3 ± 1.6 a | 48.7 ± 0.9 a | 46.9 ± 1.2 a | 47.8 ± 2.1 a | 46.2 ± 2.6 a | |
PS1D1d7 | 32.5 ± 2.3 a | 38.3 ± 3.0 a | 46.3 ± 1.5 a | 45.7 ± 1.0 a | 48.0 ± 0.8 a | 47.2 ± 0.7 a | 46.9 ± 1.8 a | 46.0 ± 2.2 a | |
Ambient | 29.6 ± 3.6 (6 a.m.–6 p.m.) and 24.4 ± 1.0 (6 p.m.–6 a.m.) |
Sample Variations/Key Tastants | A_PS1D0d5 | A_PS1D1d5 | B_PS1D0d6 | B_PS1D1d6 | B_PS3D1d6 | C_PS1D0d5 | C_PS1D1d5 | C_PS1D0d7 | C_PS1D1d7 | REML p-Values α = 5% | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Selected alkaloids—Average concentration ± standard deviation (g/kg ffdm) n = 3 | Depulping | Pod storage | |||||||||
Theobromine | 29.93 ± 0.42 | 29.97 ± 0.12 | 29.02 ± 0.55 | 29.56 ± 0.44 | 28.49 ± 0.2 | 25.95 ± 0.19 | 27.56 ± 0.7 | 28.19 ± 1.24 | 27.49 ± 0.51 | 0.225 | 0.069 |
Caffeine | 2.65 ± 0.05 | 2.71 ± 0.03 | 2.54 ± 0.03 | 2.68 ± 0.01 | 2.70 ± 0.01 | 3.21 ± 0.08 | 3.30 ± 0.13 | 3.11 ± 0.15 | 3.09 ± 0.08 | 0.051 | 0.318 |
Selected polyphenols—Average concentration ± standard deviation (mg/kg ffdm) n = 3 | |||||||||||
Catechin | 0.43 ± 0.02 | 0.60 ± 0.06 | 0.76 ± 0.02 | 0.83 ± 0.01 | 0.54 ± 0.05 | 1.04 ± 0.01 | 1.03 ± 0.1 | 0.66 ± 0.02 | 0.66 ± 0.03 | 0.024 | <0.0001 |
Epicatechin | 2.06 ± 0.11 | 1.99 ± 0.2 | 3.14 ± 0.01 | 3.43 ± 0.13 | 2.18 ± 0.12 | 3.42 ± 0.05 | 3.05 ± 0.36 | 1.90 ± 0.03 | 1.80 ± 0.06 | 0.425 | <0.0001 |
Procyanidine B2 | 1.65 ± 0.1 | 1.31 ± 0.15 | 2.67 ± 0.03 | 2.80 ± 0.08 | 1.71 ± 0.14 | 1.91 ± 0.04 | 1.89 ± 0.17 | 1.24 ± 0.02 | 1.17 ± 0.07 | 0.167 | <0.0001 |
Procyanidine C1 | 1.50 ± 0.1 | 1.17 ± 0.15 | 2.09 ± 0.02 | 2.20 ± 0.09 | 1.38 ± 0.12 | 0.96 ± 0.03 | 1.04 ± 0.02 | 0.70 ± 0.03 | 0.74 ± 0.02 | 0.631 | <0.0001 |
Cinnamtannin A2 | 1.50 ± 0.13 | 1.07 ± 0.19 | 2.08 ± 0.02 | 2.25 ± 0.09 | 1.38 ± 0.16 | 0.62 ± 0.05 | 0.76 ± 0.01 | 0.53 ± 0.04 | 0.60 ± 0.02 | 0.862 | <0.0001 |
Total flavanols DP 1-4 | 7.14 ± 0.46 | 6.14 ± 0.75 | 10.75 ± 0.01 | 11.51 ± 0.41 | 7.20 ± 0.58 | 7.96 ± 0.09 | 7.77 ± 0.65 | 5.03 ± 0.04 | 4.98 ± 0.15 | - | - |
Sample | A_PS1D0d5 | A_PS1D1d5 | B_PS1D0d6 | B_PS1D1d6 | B_PS3D1d6 | C_PS1D0d5 | C_PS1D1d5 | C_PS1D0d7 | C_PS1D1d7 | REML p-Values α = 5% | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acids | Depulping | Pod storage | |||||||||
Acetic acid a | 1556.71 ± 69.30 | 1170.80 ± 92.85 | 2967.25 ± 98.17 | 2105.89 ± 117.88 | 1953.89 ± 130.89 | 3688.26 ± 55.23 | 3013.61 ± 103.78 | 2360.99 ± 44.18 | 2151.32 ± 38.19 | <0.0001 | 0.0077 |
2-Methylbutanoic acid a | 12.70 ± 0.56 | 9.90 ± 0.29 | 14.39 ± 0.98 | 12.52 ± 0.16 | 10.11 ± 1.03 | 20.86 ± 0.23 | 18.82 ± 0.46 | 15.82 ± 0.35 | 14.30 ± 0.27 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
3-Methylbutanoic acid a | 35.05 ± 1.42 | 27.56 ± 0.76 | 39.28 ± 1.00 | 30.36 ± 0.79 | 25.11 ± 0.76 | 37.25 ± 0.22 | 33.97 ± 1.10 | 30.40 ± 0.46 | 29.69 ± 0.31 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
Phenylacetic acid a | 7.93 ± 0.57 | 7.18 ± 0.23 | 8.66 ± 0.17 | 7.17 ± 0.33 | 6.74 ± 0.26 | 79.79 ± 4.32 | 65.32 ± 3.87 | 52.44 ± 1.98 | 56.09 ± 3.20 | 0.0685 | 0.8835 |
Strecker—Aldehydes | |||||||||||
3-Methylbutanal a | 40.62 ± 4.26 | 37.44 ± 1.35 | 39.60 ± 1.88 | 42.20 ± 2.07 | 42.66 ± 4.07 | 50.77 ± 0.80 | 59.47 ± 5.77 | 79.49 ± 3.06 | 66.78 ± 6.04 | 0.7258 | 0.6935 |
2-Methylbutanal a | 3.85 ± 0.24 | 3.99 ± 0.18 | 4.65 ± 0.18 | 4.98 ± 0.21 | 5.30 ± 0.02 | 10.15 ± 0.05 | 11.69 ± 1.41 | 14.05 ± 0.70 | 14.04 ± 0.89 | 0.0661 | 0.6225 |
Phenylacetaldehyde a | 7.66 ± 0.72 | 7.89 ± 0.59 | 6.01 ± 0.35 | 7.16 ± 0.42 | 7.50 ± 0.47 | 4.91 ± 0.07 | 5.03 ± 0.19 | 5.06 ± 0.04 | 5.01 ± 0.10 | 0.0458 | 0.0243 |
Esters | |||||||||||
3-Methylbutyl acetate a | 2.33 ± 0.10 | 1.29 ± 0.07 | 5.88 ± 0.13 | 2.81 ± 0.07 | 1.73 ± 0.10 | 1.08 ± 0.05 | 0.79 ± 0.03 | 0.94 ± 0.04 | 0.70 ± 0.03 | <0.0001 | 0.0001 |
Ethyl 2-methylbutanoate b | 32.19 ± 4.60 | 35.03 ± 3.33 | 55.63 ± 8.10 | 45.28 ± 2.30 | 32.20 ± 3.69 | 16.02 ± 0.42 | 20.57 ± 0.63 | 15.71 ± 0.27 | 16.00 ± 0.35 | 0.6999 | <0.0001 |
Ethyl 3-methylbutanoate b | 46.64 ± 6.84 | 51.19 ± 6.17 | 77.97 ± 10.85 | 50.52 ± 3.70 | 43.82 ± 5.93 | 19.34 ± 1.00 | 20.04 ± 1.27 | 18.36 ± 1.15 | 16.10 ± 1.28 | 0.0670 | 0.0052 |
Ethyl phenylacetate b | 415.17 ± 25.66 | 291.50 ± 24.44 | 669.26 ± 35.12 | 498.49 ± 4.22 | 426.43 ± 25.86 | 342.32 ± 11.10 | 263.71 ± 5.27 | 242.64 ± 4.78 | 232.59 ± 2.62 | <0.0001 | 0.0003 |
Pyrazines | |||||||||||
2,3,5-Trimethylpyrazine b | 424.39 ± 16.99 | 299.14 ± 12.32 | 574.89 ± 15.58 | 415.75 ± 19.09 | 561.17 ± 3.90 | 1376.35 ± 17.19 | 1141.55 ± 21.91 | 1156.36 ± 18.49 | 1108.41 ± 37.96 | <0.0001 | 0.0002 |
2-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine b | 353.73 ± 25.71 | 331.71 ± 22.22 | 387.70 ± 9.53 | 281.12 ± 15.72 | 373.53 ± 29.53 | 315.37 ± 12.85 | 270.22 ± 2.42 | 293.26 ± 11.03 | 282.43 ± 8.79 | <0.0001 | 0.0018 |
Furans, furanones | |||||||||||
Furaneol a | 7.93 ± 0.28 | 8.45 ± 0.26 | 8.76 ± 0.25 | 8.03 ± 0.22 | 8.69 ± 0.35 | 55.18 ± 4.43 | 54.62 ± 3.41 | 55.52 ± 2.18 | 51.37 ± 0.61 | 0.8636 | 0.9439 |
Sotolone b | 27.27 ± 2.47 | 19.93 ± 1.08 | 29.97 ± 4.78 | 24.00 ± 1.92 | 19.11 ± 0.87 | 41.55 ± 2.89 | 36.97 ± 2.35 | 34.75 ± 1.10 | 33.10 ± 2.82 | <0.0001 | 0.0057 |
2-Methyl-3-(methyldithio)furan c | 725.98 ± 63.19 | 553.00 ± 55.39 | 747.25 ± 42.97 | 501.72 ± 57.76 | 493.64 ± 66.29 | 2098.98 ± 52.84 | 2419.00 ± 186.34 | 2874.61 ± 272.22 | 2823.19 ± 333.31 | 0.6185 | 0.4108 |
Others | |||||||||||
2-Phenylethanol a | 14.12 ± 1.12 | 16.57 ± 1.30 | 13.55 ± 1.30 | 14.26 ± 0.52 | 10.90 ± 0.50 | 7.78 ± 0.31 | 8.03 ± 0.19 | 7.51 ± 0.42 | 7.99 ± 0.35 | 0.0072 | <0.0001 |
2-Methoxyphenol b | 38.90 ± 0.42 | 16.35 ± 1.30 | 138.67 ± 2.27 | 140.27 ± 7.14 | 214.46 ± 16.59 | 209.59 ± 3.04 | 257.06 ± 6.33 | 390.27 ± 13.29 | 301.06 ± 1.53 | 0.1470 | 0.0002 |
Dimethyl trisulfide b | 48.76 ± 4.74 | 36.27 ± 6.49 | 41.49 ± 6.37 | 30.29 ± 3.20 | 37.24 ± 1.06 | 87.53 ± 1.18 | 102.51 ± 0.52 | 128.91 ± 3.92 | 142.72 ± 0.66 | 0.8264 | 0.8564 |
Linalool b | 873.51 ± 15.27 | 1017.69 ± 62.98 | 966.13 ± 68.22 | 1042.53 ± 17.71 | 1642.57 ± 117.73 | 1773.14 ± 43.08 | 1630.96 ± 16.15 | 1374.28 ± 28.87 | 1762.93 ± 28.85 | 0.0124 | <0.0001 |
Gamma-nonalactone b | 118.81 ± 5.78 | 113.41 ± 16.81 | 106.41 ± 8.15 | 84.62 ± 11.81 | 67.55 ± 4.37 | 45.71 ± 5.03 | 47.35 ± 0.71 | 53.09 ± 4.43 | 56.77 ± 6.38 | 0.0211 | 0.0005 |
4-Methylphenolc | 409.42 ± 38.06 | 583.31 ± 22.38 | 332.60 ± 11.46 | 448.90 ± 30.35 | 403.12 ± 3.03 | 16.88 ± 0.64 | 16.03 ± 0.42 | 17.49 ± 0.23 | 17.09 ± 0.33 | 0.0002 | 0.4392 |
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Streule, S.; André, A.; Freimüller Leischtfeld, S.; Chatelain, K.; Gillich, E.; Chetschik, I.; Miescher Schwenninger, S. Influences of Depulping, Pod Storage and Fermentation Time on Fermentation Dynamics and Quality of Ghanaian Cocoa. Foods 2024, 13, 2590. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162590
Streule S, André A, Freimüller Leischtfeld S, Chatelain K, Gillich E, Chetschik I, Miescher Schwenninger S. Influences of Depulping, Pod Storage and Fermentation Time on Fermentation Dynamics and Quality of Ghanaian Cocoa. Foods. 2024; 13(16):2590. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162590
Chicago/Turabian StyleStreule, Stefanie, Amandine André, Susette Freimüller Leischtfeld, Karin Chatelain, Elodie Gillich, Irene Chetschik, and Susanne Miescher Schwenninger. 2024. "Influences of Depulping, Pod Storage and Fermentation Time on Fermentation Dynamics and Quality of Ghanaian Cocoa" Foods 13, no. 16: 2590. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162590