Industrial Production of Bioactive Nutrient-Enhanced Extra Virgin Olive Oil under Continuous-Flow Ultrasound and Pulsed Electric Field Treatment
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Olive Cultivar
2.2. Sustainable Industrial Production of EVOO: Description of the Devices Used
2.2.1. Conventional Equipment
2.2.2. US Device
2.2.3. PEF Equipment
2.3. General Procedure for Industrial-Scale EVOO Production
2.3.1. Control Process (CTRL)
2.3.2. US-Assisted Process
2.3.3. US-PEF-Assisted Process
2.3.4. PEF-Assisted Process
2.4. General Analytical Procedures for EVOO Analysis
2.4.1. Quality Parameters of Coratina Oil Samples: FFA, PV, Insoluble Impurities, Moisture and Volatiles and Organoleptic Assessment
2.4.2. Quality Parameters of Coratina Oil Samples: UV-Specific Extinctions, Total Polyphenols, Tocotrienols and Tocopherols
2.4.3. Purity Parameters of Coratina Oil Samples
2.4.4. Statistical Analyses
2.4.5. Shelf-Life Evaluations on Green Coratina Oil Samples
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Technology-Assisted EVOO Production
3.2. Quality Assessment of Oil Samples
3.3. Purity Evaluation of Oil Samples
3.4. Micronutrient Yield
3.5. Preliminary Evaluation of Micronutrient Stability in EVOOs
3.6. Preliminary Assessment of Stability of Organoleptic Characteristics of Obtained EVOO
3.7. Technical and Economic Feasibility
- -
- 24 tons/day of olive paste with the conventional process with 4 malaxation tanks;
- -
- 36 tons/day of olive paste with the ultrasonic process;
- -
- 36 tons/day of olive paste with the US process combined with the PEF (both positive, “P”, and bipolar, “B”).
Process | Malax. (Time) | Process Flow Rate * (ton/h) | Daily Processed Olive Paste (ton/Day) | Oil Yields (w/w %) | Oil Prod. (ton/Day) ** | Energy Cons. (kW/Day) | Energy Cons. (kW/ton Oil) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CTRL | 30 min | 1.0 | 24 | 14.6 | 3.5 | 1944 | 555 |
US | - | 1.5 | 36 | 14.0 | 5.0 | 1905 | 381 |
US + PEF_P | - | 1.5 | 36 | 14.2 | 5.1 | 1934 | 379 |
US + PEF_B | - | 1.5 | 36 | 13.8 | 4.9 | 1934 | 395 |
M + PEF_P | 30 min | 1.0 | 24 | 14.4 | 3.5 | 1980 | 566 |
Process | Total Polyphenols (%) | Total Tocols (%) | Oil Prod. (%) | Energy Cons. per kg Oil (%) | Total Equipment Cost (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
US | +12.6 | +3.2 | +42.9 | −34.6 | −17.1 |
US + PEF_P | +7.9 | +5.3 | +45.7 | −34.8 | −1.7 |
US + PEF_B | - | - | +40.0 | −32.1 | −1.7 |
M + PEF_P | −6.9 | +7.9 | - | +1.8 | +11.9 |
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameters | US + PEF_P (3) | US + PEF_B (4) | M_PEF_P (5) |
---|---|---|---|
Voltage; Pulse; Frequency | [10 kV; 30 µs; 12 Hz] | [10 kV; 30 µs; 5 Hz] | [10 kV; 30 µs; 17 Hz] |
Electric Field | 2 kV/cm | 2.0 kV/cm | 2 kV/cm |
Total Energy | 5.1 kJ/kg | 5.1 kJ/kg | 5.1 kJ/kg |
Power | 1.5 kW | 1.5 kW | 1.5 kW |
Analysis | Method | Parameter (Meas. Unit) | CTRL | US | US + PEF_P | US + PEF_B | M + PEF_P | EVOO Spec. # |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FFA (expressed as oleic acid) | [56] | % ± U § | 0.20 ± 0.07 | 0.15 ± 0.07 | 0.22 ± 0.07 | 0.17 ± 0.07 | 0.17 ± 0.07 | ≤0.80 |
PV | [57] | meq O2/kg ± U § | 6.2 ± 1.1 | 6.0 ± 1.1 | 5.9 ± 1.1 | 6.2 ± 1.1 | 5.7 ± 1.1 | ≤20.0 |
Insoluble impurities | [58] | w/w % ± U § | <0.01 ± 0.01 | 0.01 ± 0.01 | <0.01 ± 0.01 | <0.01 ± 0.01 | <0.01 ± 0.01 | ≤0.10 |
Moisture and volatile matter (B) | [59] | w/w % ± U § | 0.15 ± 0.04 | 0.15 ± 0.05 | 0.16 ± 0.05 | 0.14 ± 0.05 | 0.14 ± 0.05 | ≤0.20 |
UV spectrophotometric analysis | [60] | K232 (±SD) * | 1.34 ± 0.03 | 1.97 ± 0.03 | 1.87 ± 0.01 | 1.82 ± 0.09 | 1.83 ± 0.07 | ≤2.50 |
K268 (±SD) * | 0.18 ± 0.03 | 0.19 ± 0.02 | 0.20 ± 0.01 | 0.19 ± 0.005 | 0.17 ± 0.01 | ≤0.22 | ||
ΔK (±SD) * | −0.002 ± 0.000 | −0.001 ± 0.003 | 0.000 ± 0.001 | −0.001 ± 0.003 | −0.001 ± 0.000 | ≤0.01 | ||
Organoleptic assessment | [55] | Category | EVOO | EVOO | EVOO | EVOO | EVOO | |
Median of fruitiness (Mf) | 4.3 | 4.4 | 4.3 | 4.2 | 4.1 | >0.0 | ||
Median of bitter attribute | 3.5 | 3.9 | 3.8 | 4.0 | 3.9 | - | ||
Median of pungent attribute | 4.6 | 4.7 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 4.6 | - | ||
Median of the negative attribute with the highest intensity (Md) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | =0 | ||
Notes perceived with the highest intensity: | Almond, green, floral | Almond, green, floral | Almond, green, floral | Almond, green, floral | Almond, green, floral | - |
Analysis | Method | Compound (Meas. Unit) | CTRL | US | US + PEF_P | US + PEF_B | M + PEF_P |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tocopherols and tocotrienols | [61] | α-tocopherol (the only detectable) (mg/kg) (CL 0.95, SE 1.74) * | 189 c (185 ÷ 193) | 195 bc (191 ÷ 199) | 199 ab (195 ÷ 203) | 191 bc (188 ÷ 195) | 204 a (200 ÷ 208) |
Polyphenols | [60] | mg/kg (CL 0.95, SE 19.6) * (RRF 4.95) | 980 bc (936 ÷ 1023) | 1103 a (1059 ÷ 1146) | 1057 ab (1014 ÷ 1101) | 989 bc (946 ÷ 1033) | 912 c (868 ÷ 955) |
Technique | T0 (mg/kg) * | T15 (mg/kg) * | T30 (mg/kg) * | Loss % T15 | Loss % T30 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CTRL | 980 cd, 1 (943 ÷ 1017) | 841 b, 2 (805 ÷ 878) | 836 a, 2 (799 ÷ 873) | −14.1 | −14.7 |
US | 1103 a, 1 (1066 ÷ 1140) | 895 b, 2 (858 ÷ 932) | 905 a, 2 (868 ÷ 942) | −18.8 | −17.9 |
US + PEF_P | 1057 ab, 1 (1021 ÷ 1094) | 978 a, 2 (941 ÷ 1015) | 901 a, 3 (865 ÷ 938) | −7.5 | −14.7 |
US + PEF_B | 989 bc, 1 (953 ÷ 1026) | 910 ab, 2 (874 ÷ 947) | 873 a, 2 (836 ÷ 910) | −8.0 | −11.8 |
M + PEF_P | 912 d, 1 (875 ÷ 948) | 862 b, 1 (825 ÷ 899) | 856 a, 1 (819 ÷ 892) | −5.4 | −6.1 |
Technique | T0 (mg/kg) * | T15 (mg/kg) * | T30 (mg/kg) * | Loss % T15 | Loss % T30 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CTRL | 189 c, 1 (185÷194) | 103 d, 2 (99÷108) | 107 b, 2 (103÷112) | −45.5 | −43.4 |
US | 195 b,c 1 (190÷199) | 128 a, 2 (123÷132) | 121 a, 3 (117÷126) | −34.4 | −37.9 |
US + PEF_P | 199 a,b, 1 (195÷204) | 117 b,c, 2 (113÷122) | 121 a, 2 (116÷125) | −41.2 | −39.2 |
US + PEF_B | 191 c, 1 (187÷196) | 111 c, 2 (106÷115) | 105 b, 3 (100÷109) | −41.9 | −45.0 |
M + PEF_P | 204 a, 1 (199÷209) | 120 b, 2 (125÷124) | 116 a, 2 (111÷120) | −41.2 | −43.1 |
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Boffa, L.; Calcio Gaudino, E.; Grillo, G.; Binello, A.; Capaldi, G.; Rego, D.; Pereira, M.; Cravotto, G. Industrial Production of Bioactive Nutrient-Enhanced Extra Virgin Olive Oil under Continuous-Flow Ultrasound and Pulsed Electric Field Treatment. Foods 2024, 13, 2613. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162613
Boffa L, Calcio Gaudino E, Grillo G, Binello A, Capaldi G, Rego D, Pereira M, Cravotto G. Industrial Production of Bioactive Nutrient-Enhanced Extra Virgin Olive Oil under Continuous-Flow Ultrasound and Pulsed Electric Field Treatment. Foods. 2024; 13(16):2613. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162613
Chicago/Turabian StyleBoffa, Luisa, Emanuela Calcio Gaudino, Giorgio Grillo, Arianna Binello, Giorgio Capaldi, Duarte Rego, Marcos Pereira, and Giancarlo Cravotto. 2024. "Industrial Production of Bioactive Nutrient-Enhanced Extra Virgin Olive Oil under Continuous-Flow Ultrasound and Pulsed Electric Field Treatment" Foods 13, no. 16: 2613. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162613