Sprouted Barley Flour as a Nutritious and Functional Ingredient
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Chemicals
2.2. Barley Grains
2.3. Germination
2.4. Experimental Design
2.5. Proximate and Fatty Acid Compositions
2.6. Content of Vitamin C
2.7. Content of Thiamine and Riboflavin
2.8. Content of β-Glucan
2.9. Content of γ-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
2.10. Total Phenolic Content Determined by the Folin–Ciocalteu Method
2.11. Content and Profile of Free and Bound Phenolic Compounds
2.12. Total Antioxidant Activity
2.12.1. DPPH Assays (Classical and Q-Versions)
2.12.2. TEAC Assay
2.12.3. ORAC Assay
2.12.4. FRAP Assay
2.13. Glycemic Index
2.14. Colorimetric Characterizationof Germinated Barley Flours
2.15. Sensory Analysis
2.16. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Effect of Germination on Proximate Composition of Sprouted Barley Flours
3.2. Effect of Germination on Fatty Acid Content of Sprouted Barley Flours
3.3. Effect of Germination on Vitamin Content of Sprouted Barley Flours
3.4. Effect of Germination on β-Glucan Content of Sprouted Barley Flours
3.5. Effect of Germination on GABA Content of Sprouted Barley Flours
3.6. Effect of Germination on Total Phenolic Content of Sprouted Barley Flours
3.7. Effect of Germination on Free and Bound Phenolic Compounds Profile of Sprouted Barley Flours
3.8. Effect of Germination on Antioxidant Activity of Sprouted Barley Flours
3.9. Effect of Germination on Glycemic Index (GI) of Sprouted Barley Flours
3.10. Effect of Germination on the Colour and Sensory Properties of Sprouted Barley Flours
3.11. Multivariate Optimization of Germination Conditions to Obtain High-Quality Germinated Barley Flours
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Factor A Temperature (°C) | Factor B Time (Days) | Experiments (Codes) |
---|---|---|
12.1 | 3.58 | 1 |
13.2 | 1.60 | 2 |
13.2 | 5.52 | 3 |
16.0 | 0.81 | 4 |
16.0 | 3.48 | 5* |
16.0 | 6.19 | 6 |
18.8 | 1.60 | 7 |
18.8 | 5.52 | 8 |
19.9 | 3.60 | 9 |
Response Variables | Model Equations | Optimum Temperature (Tp) | Optimum Time (Tm) |
---|---|---|---|
Fat | 4.984 – 0.214 × TP + 0.022 × TM + 0.006 × TP2 – 0.008 × TM × TP – 0.009 × TP2 | 12.1 | 0.81 |
Protein | 19.066 – 0.551 × TM + 0.167 × TP + 0.019 × TM2 + 0.010 × TM × TP – 0.026 × TP2 | 19.9 | 6.19 |
Fiber | 35.541 – 2.362 × TP – 1.176 × TM + 0.080 × TP2 + 0.00004 × TM × TP + 0.098 × TP2 | 19.9 | 0.81 |
Carbohydrates | 65.948 – 0.075 × TM + 2.804 × TP + 0.025 × TM2 – 0.098 × TM × TP – 0.121 × TP2 | 12.1 | 0.81 |
Saturated fatty acids | 24.444 – 0.587 × TM – 2.426 × TP + 0.019 × TM2 + 0.179 × TP × TM + 0.010 × TP2 | 19.9 | 6.19 |
Unsaturated fatty acids | 75.556 + 0.587 × TM + 2.426 × TP – 0.019 × TM2 – 0.179 × TM × TP – 0.100 × TP2 | 12.1 | 0.81 |
Monounsat. fatty acids | 17.847 + 0.398 × TM + 0.288 × TP – 0.010 × TP2 – 0.123 × TM × TP + 0.036 × TP2 | 14.3 | 0.81 |
Polyunsat. fatty acids | 57.747 + 0.184 × TM + 2.141 × TP – 0.008 × TP2 – 0.056 × TM × TP – 0.136 × TP2 | 12.1 | 5.4 |
Vitamin C | 61.315 – 6.418 × TP + 0.101 × TM + 0.110 × TP2 + 0.060 × TM × TP – 0.020 × TP2 | 19.9 | 6.19 |
Vitamin B1 | 1003.83 – 30.743×TM – 37.626×TP + 0.867 × TM2 + 0.059 × TP × TM + 4.207 × TM2 | 12.1 | 0.81 |
Vitamin B2 | 4.880 – 0.329 × TP + 39.175 × TM + 0.290 × TP2 – 0.460 × TM × TP – 1.271 × TP2 | 19.9 | 6.19 |
β-glucan | 6.886 + 0.052 × TP – 1.68 × TM – 0.009 × TP2 + 0.082 × TP × TM + 0.014 × TP2 | 12.1 | 0.81 |
GABA | 311.39 – 28.559 × TM – 4.590 × TP + 0.759 × TM2 + 2.101 × TP × TM – 1.924 × TM2 | 19.9 | 6.19 |
TPC | 367.582 – 31.560 × TP – 8.571 × TM + 0.874 × TM2 + 1.297×TP × TM – 0.929 × TP2 | 19.9 | 6.19 |
Bound ferulic acid | 423.975 – 36.487 × TP – 47.023 × TM + 0.784 × TP2 + 2.769 × TM × TP + 0.212 × TP2 | 12.1 | 0.81 |
Free procyanidin | 53.593 – 5.589 × TP – 2.911 × TM + 0.147 × TP2 + 0.181 × TM × TP – 0.025 × TP2 | 12.1 | 0.81 |
FRAP | 0.407 – 0.027 × TP – 0.017 × TM + 0.0007 × TP2 + 0.0009 × TM × TP + 0.0005 × TP2 | 19.9 | 6.19 |
ORAC | 205.967 – 23.180 × TM – 0.708 × TP + 0.709 × TM2 + 0.923 × TM × TP – 1.361 × TP2 | 19.9 | 6.19 |
DPPH | 4274.09 – 291.532 × TP – 284.032 × TM + 5.985 × TP2 + 18.461 × TM × TP – 0.231 × TP2 | 12.1 | 0.81 |
TEAC | 15296.3 – 1782.21 × TM + 1758.61 × TP + 59.311 × TM2 – 21.386 × TP × TM − 119.929 × TP2 | 19.9 | 6.19 |
DPPH-Q * | 5252.4 – 507.735 × TP – 136.6 × TM + 14.287 × TP2 + 11.670 × TM × TP – 0.503 × TM2 | 19.9 | 6.19 |
L* | 100.793 – 1.859 × TM + 0.478 × TP + 0.054 × TM2 – 0.003 × TM × TP – 0.069 × TP2 | 12.1 | 3.2 |
a* | 0.455 + 0.088 × TM + 0.182 × TP − 0.002 × TM2 – 0.013 × TM × TP – 0.0004 × TP2 | 19.9 | 0.81 |
b* | 16.906 – 0.874 × TM – 0.564 × TP + 0.025 × TM2 + 0.057 × TP × TM – 0.014 × TP2 | 12.1 | 0.81 |
Glycemic index | 105.067 – 4.918 × TM – 3.373 × TP + 0.180 × TM2 + 0.093 × TP × TM + 0.471 × TP2 | 19.9 | 6.19 |
Color | (−) 0.322 + 0.0469 × TM + 0.075 × TP | 12.1 | 0.81 |
Texture | 0.268 + 0.039 × TM − 0.011 × TP | 12.1 | 0.81 |
Flavour | (−) 0.365 + 0.047 × TM + 0.085 × TP | 19.9 | 6.19 |
Fraction | Germination Experiments | Catechin | Protocatechuic Acid | Diferulic Acid | 4-hydroxybenzoic Acid | Phloridzin | Ferulic Acid | Caffeic Acid | 4-coumaric Acid | Procyanidin B |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Free | BS | 0.99 ± 0.16 cB | 0.01 ± 0.02 aA | 2.22 ± 0.31 dC | ND aA | 0.01 ± 0.00 aA | ND aA | ND aA | ND aA | 12.44 ± 0.80 cD |
1 | 0.20 ± 0.04 bB | 0.02 ± 0.00 bA | 0.76 ± 0.32 cC | ND aA | 0.02 ± 0.01 aA | ND aA | ND aA | ND aA | 1.94 ± 0.56 abB | |
2 | 0.02 ± 0.00 aA | 0.02 ± 0.00 bA | 0.36 ± 0.19 bB | ND aA | 0.02 ± 0.01 aA | ND aA | ND aA | ND aA | 3.26 ± 1.41 bC | |
3 | 0.53 ± 0.40 bcB | 0.01 ± 0.02 aA | 1.19 ± 0.02 eB | ND aA | 0.03 ± 0.01 aA | ND aA | ND aA | ND aA | 1.40 ± 0.57 abB | |
4 | 0.12 ± 0.12 aA | 0.03 ± 0.00 bA | 1.06 ± 0.07 deB | ND aA | 0.01 ± 0.00 aA | ND aA | ND aA | ND aA | 1.06 ± 0.01 aB | |
5 | 0.18 ± 0.02 bB | 0.02 ± 0.00 bA | 1.61 ± 0.84 defC | ND aA | 0.02 ± 0.01 aA | ND aA | ND aA | ND aA | 1.68 ± 1.11 abC | |
6 | 0.67 ± 0.71 bcAB | 0.03 ± 0.00 bA | 1.90 ± 0.82 efB | ND aA | 0.01 ± 0.00 aA | ND aA | ND aA | ND aA | 2.79 ± 2.23 aB | |
7 | 0.08 ± 0.08 aA | 0.03 ± 0.00 bA | 0.65 ± 0.00 cB | ND aA | 0.01 ± 0.00 aA | ND aA | ND aA | ND aA | 0.49 ± 0.70 aAB | |
8 | 0.87 ± 0.75 bcB | 0.02 ± 0.00 bA | 1.03 ± 0.10 cdB | ND aA | 0.01 ± 0.00 aA | ND aA | ND aA | ND aA | 2.68 ± 2.05 abB | |
9 | 0.57 ± 0.36 bcB | 0.03 ± 0.00 bA | 0.99 ± 0.02 dB | ND aA | 0.02 ± 0.00 aA | ND aA | ND aA | ND aA | 6.72 ± 2.87 bC | |
Bound | BS | ND aA | 0.07 ± 0.05 bcB | 0.26 ± 0.05 bD | 0.45 ± 0.01 dE | 0.02 ± 0.01 aA | 45.06 ± 3.09 dH | 0.16 ± 0.01 bC | 2.34 ± 0.40 cdG | 1.07 ± 0.14 aF |
1 | ND aA | 0.10 ± 0.00 cB | 0.09 ± 0.00 aB | 0.31 ± 0.02 cC | 0.01 ± 0.00 aA | 36.45 ± 2.44 cF | 0.70 ± 0.09 dC | 2.46 ± 0.30 cdE | 1.22 ± 0.18 aD | |
2 | 0.02 ± 0.03 aA | 0.03 ± 0.01 abA | 0.09 ± 0.00 aB | 0.21 ± 0.04 bC | 0.01 ± 0.00 aA | 50.27 ± 9.18 deF | 0.13 ± 0.01 bB | 2.32 ± 0.43 cdE | 1.07 ± 0.33 aD | |
3 | ND aA | 0.08 ± 0.06 bcB | 0.19 ± 0.15 abBC | 0.22 ± 0.02 bC | 0.02 ± 0.01 aA | 31.15 ± 1.89 cE | 0.33 ± 0.19 bcC | 1.56 ± 0.27 bcD | 1.23 ± 0.29 aD | |
4 | ND aA | 0.05 ± 0.00 bB | 0.19 ± 0.02 bC | 0.27 ± 0.09 bcC | 0.02 ± 0.01 aA | 31.25 ± 5.16 cF | 0.22 ± 0.01 cC | 1.92 ± 0.19 cd.E | 0.90 ± 0.03 aD | |
5 | ND aA | 0.06 ± 0.01 bB | 1.18 ± 0.1 eD | 0.15 ± 0.08 bB | 0.01 ± 0.01 aA | 23.82 ± 1.02 bF | 0.67 ± 0.01 dC | 1.40 ± 0.03 bE | 0.66 ± 0.94 aBCD | |
6 | ND aA | 0.08 ± 0.02 bc.B | 1.52 ± 0.70 defCD | 0.22 ± 0.18 bcB | 0.01 ± 0.00 aA | 28.40 ± 17.43 bcdE | 0.68 ± 0.41 cdC | 2.01 ± 1.06 bcdD | 0.89 ± 0.06 aC | |
7 | ND aA | 0.04 ± 0.03 abA | 1.03 ± 0.11 dC | 0.12 ± 0.07 bB | 0.01 ± 0.01 aA | 31.27 ± 9.38 cdE | 0.26 ± 0.10 cB | 1.79 ± 0.57 bcD | 1.08 ± 0.14 aC | |
8 | ND aA | 0.15 ± 0.07 cB | 1.21 ± 1.12 bcdeCD | 0.41 ± 0.01 dC | 0.02 ± 0.01 aA | 72.95 ± 12.73 eF | 1.21 ± 0.21 eD | 2.60 ± 0.51 cdE | 0.99 ± 0.07 aD | |
9 | ND aA | 0.13 ± 0.03 c | 2.88 ± 0.42 fE | 0.32 ± 0.09 cC | 0.01 ± 0.01 aA | 43.89 ± 6.59 dF | 0.98 ± 0.05 eD | 3.28 ± 0.85 dE | 1.01 ± 0.07 aD |
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Rico, D.; Peñas, E.; García, M.d.C.; Martínez-Villaluenga, C.; Rai, D.K.; Birsan, R.I.; Frias, J.; Martín-Diana, A.B. Sprouted Barley Flour as a Nutritious and Functional Ingredient. Foods 2020, 9, 296. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030296
Rico D, Peñas E, García MdC, Martínez-Villaluenga C, Rai DK, Birsan RI, Frias J, Martín-Diana AB. Sprouted Barley Flour as a Nutritious and Functional Ingredient. Foods. 2020; 9(3):296. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030296
Chicago/Turabian StyleRico, Daniel, Elena Peñas, María del Carmen García, Cristina Martínez-Villaluenga, Dilip K. Rai, Rares I. Birsan, Juana Frias, and Ana B. Martín-Diana. 2020. "Sprouted Barley Flour as a Nutritious and Functional Ingredient" Foods 9, no. 3: 296. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030296