Bioactive Compounds and Quality of Extra Virgin Olive Oil
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Main Components of EVOO
2.1. Primary Metabolites
2.1.1. Lipids
2.1.2. Tocopherols
2.1.3. Carbohydrates
2.2. Secondary Metabolites
2.2.1. Phenolic Compounds
2.2.2. Pigments
3. Biological Properties of EVOO
3.1. Cardioprotective Properties
3.2. Antioxidant Activity
3.3. Anti-Inflammatory Activity
3.4. Antitumoral Activity
3.5. Positive Modulation of Gut Microbiota
3.6. Other Bioactivities
4. EVOO Quality Regarding the Chemical Composition
4.1. Analytical Techniques
4.2. Effect of Olive Variety
4.3. Effect of Light
4.4. Effect of Temperature
4.5. Effect of Time
4.6. Effect of Oxygen Presence
4.7. Effect of Packaging Material
5. Possible Applications of EVOO beyond Nutritional Purposes
5.1. Extractive Solvent
5.2. Therapeutic Application
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations List
Generic | |
CHD | Coronary Heart Disease |
CVD | Cardiovascular Diseases |
DSC | Differential Scanning Calorimetry |
DPPH | 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate free radical assay |
EFSA | European Food Safety Authority |
EU | European Union |
EVOO | Extra Virgin Olive Oil |
GC | Gas Chromatography |
HPLC | High Performance Liquid Chromatography |
HIV | Human Immunodeficiency Viruses |
IC50 | Half Maximal Inhibitory Concentration |
IOC | International Olive Council |
MED | Mediterranean Diet |
NMR | Nuclear Magnetic Resonance |
PREDIMED | Prevention Through Mediterranean Diet |
USA | United States of America |
VOO | Virgin Olive Oil |
Biological and Chemical Compounds | |
CRP | C-Reactive Protein |
DNA | Deoxyribonucleic Acid |
HDL | High-Density Lipoprotein |
Hg | Mercury |
IL-6 | Interleukin-6 |
LDL | Low-Density Lipoprotein |
MAPK | Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase |
miRNA | Micro Ribonucleic Acid |
mTOR | Mammalian Target of Rapamycin |
MUFA | Monounsaturated Fatty Acids |
OOL | Oleic–Oleic–Linoleic Triacylglycerol |
OOO | Oleic–Oleic–Oleic Triacylglycerol |
PET | Polyethylene Terephthalate |
POO | Palmitic-Oleic-Oleic Triacylglycerol |
POL | Palmitic–Oleic–Linoleic Triacylglycerol |
PUFA | Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids |
SOO | Stearic–Oleic–Oleic Triacylglycerol |
TPC | Total Phenolic Content |
TNF-α | Tumor Necrosis Factor-A |
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Type of Oil | Characteristics | Free Acidity | |
---|---|---|---|
Virgin olive oils | EVOO | They are characterized for being obtained by mechanical or other physical processes under specific thermal conditions that do not cause alterations in the oil and have not suffered any treatment other than washing, decantation, centrifugation or filtration. Excluded are oils obtained using solvents or adjuvants with chemical actions, by re-esterification process or any mixture with oils of other types. | <0.8 g per 100 g |
Virgin olive oil | ≤2 g per 100 g | ||
Lampante olive oil | >2 g per 100 g | ||
Refined olive oil | In this case, virgin olive oil is submitted to a refining process. | ≤0.3 g per 100 g | |
Olive oil(composed of refined olive oils and virgin olive oils) | It is the result of the blending of the two previous oils: virgin olive oils (not lampante oil) with refined olive oil. | ≤1 g per 100 g | |
Crude olive pomace oil | This type refers to oil obtained from olive pomace by using solvents, physical treatments or oil corresponding to lampante olive oil type, except for certain specified characteristics. As well as in the case of virgin olive oils, excluded are oils obtained by means of re-esterification and mixtures with oils of other types. | ||
Refined olive pomace oil | This type is obtained from refining crude olive pomace oil. | ≤0.3 g per 10 g | |
Olive pomace oil | It if the resultant oil from mixing refined olive pomace oil and virgin olive oil different than lampante oil. | ≤1 g per 100 g |
Component | Concentration | References | |
---|---|---|---|
Lipids | |||
Fatty acids (%) | |||
Myristic acid | C14:0 | 0.05 | [53] |
Palmitic acid | C16:0 | 9.4–19.5 | [51,54] |
Palmitoleic acid | C16:1 | 0.6–3.2 | [51,54] |
Heptadecanoic acid | C17:0 | 0.07–0.13 | [51] |
Heptadecenoic acid | C17:1 | 0.17–0.24 | [51] |
Stearic acid | C18:0 | 1.4–3.0 | [51,54] |
Oleic acid | C18:1 | 63.1–79.7 | [51,54] |
Linoleic acid | C18:2 | 6.6–14.8 | [51,54] |
α-Linolenic acid | C18:3 | 0.46–0.69 | [51,54] |
Arachidic acid | C20:0 | 0.3–0.4 | [51,54] |
Eicosenoic acid | C20:1 | 0.2–0.3 | [51,54] |
Docosanoic acid | C22:0 | 0.09–0.12 | [51,54] |
Lignoceric acid | C24:0 | 0.04–0.05 | [51] |
MUFA | 65.2–80.8 | [51] | |
PUFA | 7.0-15.5 | [51] | |
Other lipids | |||
Diacylglycerols (%) | 1–2.8 | [53] | |
Monoacylglycerols (%) | 0.25 | [53] | |
Total sterol content (mg/kg) | 1000–3040 | [43,55] | |
Tocopherols (mg/kg) | |||
α- Tocopherol | 10.2–208 | [51,54,56] | |
β- Tocopherol | 0.75–1.05 | [51] | |
γ- Tocopherol | 0.7–2.1 | [51] | |
Carbohydrates (mg/kg) | |||
Squalene | 200–8260 | [43,54,56,57] | |
Pigments (mg/kg) | |||
Total chlorophylls (mg/kg) | 0.15–61.96 | [51,58] | |
Pheophytin-a (mg/kg) | 0.08–0.49 | [56] | |
Total carotenoids (mg/kg) | 0.53–31.51 | [51,54,58] | |
β-carotene (mg/kg) | 0.15–0.67 | [56] | |
Lutein (mg/kg) | 0.65–3.60 | [56] | |
Other Compounds | |||
Total phenolic compounds (mg/kg) | 213–450 | [54] | |
Triterpene dialcohols (% of total sterols) | 0.9–2.8 | [55] | |
β-sitosterol (mg/kg) | 530.2–2638.6 | [56] |
Bioactivity | Studies Description | Main Results | Ref |
---|---|---|---|
Cardioprotection | RCT, PREDIMED (n = 7447 participants at high CVD risk) | Following a MED enriched with EVOO decreases CVD risk by 30% | [30,107] |
PREDIMED observational study (n = 7216 participants) | For each 10g EVOO/day intake, CVD risk decreases by 10% | [112] | |
Systematic review of 15 RCTs | 10–50 mL/day EVOO reduced diastolic blood pressure by 0.7 mm Hg | [113] | |
Meta-analysis of 9 studies (38,673 stroke and 101,460 CHD cases from RCT, case-control and prospective studies) | For every increase of 25 g of olive oil consumption the risk of CVD, stroke and CHD was reduced by 18%, 26% and 4% respectively | [114] | |
Meta-analysis of 26 RCTs | High polyphenol olive oil intake significantly reduced CVD and inflammatory markers | [115] | |
Antioxidant properties | European Food Safety Authority health claim. | 5 mg/day of olive oils polyphenols protects blood lipids from oxidation | [116] |
RCTs evaluating the effect of olive oils consumption on blood lipids oxidative state. | EVOO and high-phenolic olive oils consumption reduces LDL oxidation in a dose-dependent manner | [117,118,119,120] | |
Controlled trials with sub-samples of PREDIMED cohort (n = 296) and (n = 210) | Adherence to a MED enriched with EVOO improves HDL function and protects against LDL oxidation | [108,109] | |
In vitro studies review. | Lignans present in EVOO show antioxidant activity in vitro | [121] | |
Anti-inflammatory capacity | Meta-analysis of 13 studies based on 9 RCTs | Regular consumption of EVOO reduces IL-6, CRP and TNF-α levels | [122] |
Meta-analysis of RCTs (3106 participants) | Diet supplemented or enriched in olive oil reduces IL-6 and CRP plasmatic levels | [123] | |
Randomized crossover study (49 patients) | High-phenolic virgin olive oil in breakfast reduces postprandial inflammatory response. | [124] | |
Antitumoral activity | Meta-analysis of 19 case-control studies (comprising 13,800 cancer cases and 23,340 controls) | Olive oil consumption is associated with lower odds of developing digestive and breast cancers | [125] |
Cohort-study follow up (2321 breast cancer cases and 1665 controls) and meta-analysis | Inverse association between adherence to MED and ERN breast cancer | [126] | |
RCT with a sub-sample of the PREDIMED cohort (n = 4152 women) | Women following MED enriched in EVOO showed 62% relatively lower risk of breast cancer compared to control low-fat diet | [110] | |
Systematic review and meta-analysis of 83 studies, comprising a total of 2,130,753 subjects | The adherence to MED is associated with lower risk of cancer mortality and lower risk of breast, colorectal, gastric and liver cancers, among others | [127] | |
In vitro experiments of antitumoral activity of phenolic compounds on cancer cell lines | The phenolic fraction of EVOO, as well as isolated phenolic compounds, shows antitumoral and cytotoxic effect on different cancer cell lines | [128,129,130] | |
Gut microbiota modulation | RCT with 12 hypercholesterolemic participants | Virgin olive oil enriched in phenolic compounds consumption favors gut bifidobacteria growth and decreases serum levels of oxidized LDL | [131] |
Systematic review and meta-analysis of 17 RCTs | Polyphenols exert a prebiotic action on gut microbiota, improving also CVD and CRC | [132] |
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Jimenez-Lopez, C.; Carpena, M.; Lourenço-Lopes, C.; Gallardo-Gomez, M.; Lorenzo, J.M.; Barba, F.J.; Prieto, M.A.; Simal-Gandara, J. Bioactive Compounds and Quality of Extra Virgin Olive Oil. Foods 2020, 9, 1014. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9081014
Jimenez-Lopez C, Carpena M, Lourenço-Lopes C, Gallardo-Gomez M, Lorenzo JM, Barba FJ, Prieto MA, Simal-Gandara J. Bioactive Compounds and Quality of Extra Virgin Olive Oil. Foods. 2020; 9(8):1014. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9081014
Chicago/Turabian StyleJimenez-Lopez, Cecilia, Maria Carpena, Catarina Lourenço-Lopes, Maria Gallardo-Gomez, Jose M. Lorenzo, Francisco J. Barba, Miguel A. Prieto, and Jesus Simal-Gandara. 2020. "Bioactive Compounds and Quality of Extra Virgin Olive Oil" Foods 9, no. 8: 1014. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9081014