Nutrition-Oriented Reformulation of Extruded Cereals and Associated Environmental Footprint: A Case Study
Abstract
:1. Background
2. Methods
2.1. Cases Selection
2.2. Life Cycle Assessment Methodology
2.3. Nutritional Data and Raw Material
2.4. Environmental Impact Assessment
- Climate change (kg CO2-eq, eq = equivalent here and below) (IPCC 2013, 100 a) [26]. Measures the greenhouse gases emitted as part of agricultural processes (application of fertilizers, livestock enteric fermentation), land use change, combustion of fuels and waste, anaerobic decay of bio-based materials, and industrial processes. Biogenic CO2 is assigned a characterization factor of 0. This is a midpoint indicator.
- Freshwater consumption scarcity (m3-eq) [27]. Measures the availability of water for use downstream, weighted by local water scarcity factors. This is a midpoint indicator.
- Abiotic resource depletion (kg Sb-eq) (CML 2001 method, v. 2.05; CML, Center of Environmental Science, Leiden University, The Netherlands) [28]. Measures the potential for depletion of non-renewable resources in relation to a reference substance (antimony, Sb). This is a midpoint indicator.
- Land use impacts on biodiversity (PDF × m2 × year; PDF = Potentially Disappeared Fraction). Measures the impact of different land uses (arable, permanent crops, pasture, forestry, fallow land, industrial, traffic area, urban) on the biodiversity present in that area over a given period (IMPACT World+/Land use method, v.0.05) [29]. This is an endpoint indicator.
- Impacts on ecosphere/ecosystems quality (PDF × m2 × year) (IMPACT 2002+ method v. Q2.27) [30,31]. This is a compound indicator comprising three indicators: eutrophication, ecotoxicity, and acidification. Eutrophication is caused by over-enrichment of aquatic environments with nutrients, typically N and P. Acidification is caused by the deposition of S and N in the soil, thus, affecting its buffer capacity, causing imbalances in the soil composition and affecting its pH. Ecotoxicity refers to the effect on the biota caused by toxic substances emitted into the environment (air, soil, water bodies), such as pesticides, fertilizers, heavy metals, volatile compounds. This is an endpoint indicator.
2.5. Inclusion of Packaging, Manufacture, Distribution and Retail, and of Life and Transportation in the Life Cycle Inventory
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Raw Materials and Nutritional Composition
3.2. Environmental Footprint Assessment
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Recipe Year | Ingredients Only | Complete LCA | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ARD | CC | FWCS | IEEQ | LUIB | ARD | CC | FWCS | IEEQ | LUIB | |
2003 | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% |
2010 | −7% | −7% | −8% | −4% | 18% | −13% | −10.3% | −8.7% | −6.3% | 14.3% |
2018 | 12% | −3% | 62% | 1% | 78% | −14% | −11.7% | 57% | −2.3% | 69.7% |
Product | Year | Conventional Practices | No Deforestation Practices | Potential Change |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cereal 1 | 2003 | 9.4×102 | 5.0×102 | −47% |
2010 | 9.6×102 | 5.4×102 | −44% | |
2018 | 8.9×102 | 5.2×102 | −41% | |
Cereal 2 | 2003 | 1.2×10 | 5.9×102 | −49% |
2010 | 1.1×10 | 4.8×102 | −55% | |
2018 | 1.0×10 | 5.1×102 | −49% | |
Cereal 3 | 2003 | 9.0×102 | 6.5×102 | −27% |
2010 | 6.7×102 | 4.6×102 | −32% | |
2018 | 7.6×102 | 6.0×102 | −21% |
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Espinoza-Orias, N.; Vlassopoulos, A.; Masset, G. Nutrition-Oriented Reformulation of Extruded Cereals and Associated Environmental Footprint: A Case Study. Foods 2020, 9, 1260. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091260
Espinoza-Orias N, Vlassopoulos A, Masset G. Nutrition-Oriented Reformulation of Extruded Cereals and Associated Environmental Footprint: A Case Study. Foods. 2020; 9(9):1260. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091260
Chicago/Turabian StyleEspinoza-Orias, Namy, Antonis Vlassopoulos, and Gabriel Masset. 2020. "Nutrition-Oriented Reformulation of Extruded Cereals and Associated Environmental Footprint: A Case Study" Foods 9, no. 9: 1260. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091260