Metformin as an Emerging Pollutant in the Aquatic Environment: Occurrence, Analysis, and Toxicity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Property, Production, and Usage of Metformin
3. Detection Methods of Metformin in Water
3.1. Liquid Chromatography
3.2. Electrochemical Analysis Techniques
3.3. Spectrophotometry
3.4. Capillary Electrophoresis
3.5. Thin-Layer Chromatography
3.6. Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry
4. Sources and Distribution of Metformin in Water Bodies
4.1. Sources of Metformin in Water Bodies
4.2. Metformin Distribution in Water Bodies
5. Toxic Effects of Metformin on Aquatic Organisms
5.1. Mode of Entry into Organisms and Enrichment
5.2. Toxic Effects
5.2.1. Toxic Effects of Metformin in Fish
5.2.2. Effects of Metformin on Other Test Organisms
Daphnia
Rotifers
Chlorella
6. Outlook
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Detection Methods | Advantages | Limitations | Applicability | LOD | LOQ | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) | High separation performance and good detection sensitivity; without the limitations of volatility and thermal stability of the analytes | Costly, sensitive to temperature changes, more time-consuming than gas chromatography | Metformin hydrochloride | 0.8 mg/L | 2.45 mg/L | [13] |
Electrochemical analysis techniques | Highly sensitive and accurate, have a wide measuring range, and complete analysis quickly | Suffer from interference, heavy metal electrodes are toxic and not suitable for long-term work, reaction intermediates or products influence the results | Metformin | - | - | [14,15] |
Spectrophotometry | Simple operation, high efficiency, easy maintenance, and high sensitivity | Not suitable for the determination of large quantities of substances | Metformin | 226 mg/L | 674.5 mg/L | [16,17] |
Capillary electrophoresis | Simple operation, low sample volume, high separation efficiency, low cost, high separation capacity, high separation speed, and small feed volume | Less reproducible than HPLC in terms of migration time, injection precision, and detection sensitivity | Metformin | 60 mg/L | 100 mg/L | [18] |
Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) | Ease of operation, simple equipment, and easy color development, Wide range of applications, Shorter time, higher resolution than paper chromatography, relatively cheap | Poor separation of biomolecules compared to HPLC | Metformin hydrochloride | 6160.85 ng per band | 18,669.26 ng per band | [19] |
Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) | High sensitivity and specificity, more accurate identification of compound structure, and reliable quantitative and qualitative results | High instrumentation and maintenance costs | Metformin | - | 17.8 ng/L | [20] |
Fish | Concentration | Negative Impact | References |
---|---|---|---|
Nothobranchius guentheri | 2 mg/g (food) | -Increased longevity -Improvement of cognitive skills -Suppression of the inflammatory response | [58] |
2 mg/g (food) | -Delayed aging -Resistance to oxidative stress and inflammation | [59] | |
Pimephales promelas | 5 and 50 μg/L | -Energy homeostasis disorders and visual effects | [60] |
0.02, 3.44, 33.6, 269 μg/L | -microbial flora disorder | [61] | |
3.0, 31, 322 μg/L | -Delayed onset of reproduction 9–10 d | [62] | |
Labeo rohita | 40 and 80 μg/L | -Increased reactive oxygen species and free radical production, DNA damage | [63] |
Clarias gariepinus | 10 and 50 mg/L | -Suppression of immunity in exposed treated fish can be through activation of lymphocytes and monocytes -Induces cellular oxidative stress by reducing superoxide dismutase (SOD) antioxidant enzymes and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) -Increased expression of the inflammatory mediatorsinterleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) | [64] |
Salmo trutta f. fario | 1, 10, 100, and 1000 μg/L | -In vitro expression of fish pathogen virulence genes induced by metformin and the effect of metformin on microbiome composition in juvenile brown trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) | [65] |
Astyanax lacustris | 50, 100, 1000, and 10,000 μg/L | -Plate fusion, capillary dilatation and proliferation, and disappearance of microridges, observed morphological changes that may interfere with gill physiology | [66] |
Oryzias latipes | 1, 3.2, 10, 32, and 100 ng/L | -Alteration of many important pathways associated with the overall health of ELS fish, including biomolecular metabolism, cellular energetics, nervous system function/development, cellular communication and structure, and reactive oxygen species detoxification | [67] |
Danio rerio | 1, 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000 ng/L | -Motor activity was affected and several genes involved in neurological and cardiovascular development were differently expressed after exposure to metformin. | [68] |
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Zheng, Y.; Shao, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, Z.; Zhao, Z.; Xu, R.; Ding, J.; Li, W.; Wang, B.; Zhang, H. Metformin as an Emerging Pollutant in the Aquatic Environment: Occurrence, Analysis, and Toxicity. Toxics 2024, 12, 483. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070483
Zheng Y, Shao Y, Zhang Y, Liu Z, Zhao Z, Xu R, Ding J, Li W, Wang B, Zhang H. Metformin as an Emerging Pollutant in the Aquatic Environment: Occurrence, Analysis, and Toxicity. Toxics. 2024; 12(7):483. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070483
Chicago/Turabian StyleZheng, Yueyue, Yongjian Shao, Yinan Zhang, Zhiquan Liu, Zirui Zhao, Ranyun Xu, Jiafeng Ding, Wenbing Li, Binhao Wang, and Hangjun Zhang. 2024. "Metformin as an Emerging Pollutant in the Aquatic Environment: Occurrence, Analysis, and Toxicity" Toxics 12, no. 7: 483. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070483