Current Challenges in Monitoring Low Contaminant Levels of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Water Matrices in the Field
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. EPA’s National Primary Drinking Water Regulations
3. Current Methods and Instrumentation
- The method is intended for the targeted analysis of 40 PFASs in various matrices, including aqueous samples.
- It relies on ultra-high-performance (UHP) LC and tandem MS. This combined instrumentation must be operated by either analysts experienced with such equipment or operators under the close supervision of such qualified persons.
- Since the method both calibrates and analyzes PFASs using isotopically labeled standards, linear and branched PFAS may be analyzed as a mixture instead of individually.
- The method offers the flexibility of its modification as long as it leads to an improvement in performance. Examples include improvement in the sensitivity, accuracy, or precision of the results or the reduction of interference.
4. Diverse Chemical Structures and Properties
5. PFAS Sensors: Field-Based Portable, Low-Cost, Monitoring Technology
5.1. Interference, Selectivity, and Sensitivity
- Chemical:
- –
- Organic Chemicals [61,62]: These can include pesticides, herbicides, and industrial chemicals such as benzene or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Many of these chemicals enter water sources through agricultural runoff, industrial discharge, or leakage from waste disposal sites. Other chemical contaminants can come from medication, cosmetics, and personal care products.
- –
- –
- Compounds: Chemicals used in the water disinfection process, like chlorine, can react with natural organic materials in water to form byproducts such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs).
5.2. Other Considerations
5.3. PFAS Sensor Technologies
5.3.1. Molecular Imprinted Polymers
- Template molecule introduction [102]: The target molecule, which the polymer will be imprinted to recognize, is mixed with monomers.
- Polymerization: This mixture is then polymerized in the presence of cross-linkers. The template molecule influences the positioning and orientation of the monomers as they form the polymer matrix [103].
- Template removal: After polymerization, the template molecule is removed, leaving behind cavities that are complementary in shape, size, and functional groups to the template [104].
- MIP technologies for PFAS sensors
5.3.2. Nanoparticle-Based Sensors
- Large NP-based sensors
- QD-based sensors
5.3.3. Biosensors
5.3.4. Framework-Based Sensors
6. Discussion and Future Outlook
- Routine monitoring could be carried out, which would allow for more frequent testing and reporting. Fast detection methods could be implemented, which would help identify more quickly critical areas of PFAS contamination that require immediate remediation attention.
- The general public could potentially bring testing to their homes, which could help expedite implementations of home-based filtration systems. Furthermore, this could help mitigate psychological effects caused by the PFAS problem.
- The PWS must conduct initial and ongoing compliance monitoring for the regulated PFASs.
- The PWS must implement solutions to reduce regulated PFASs in their drinking water if levels are above the MCLs.
- The PWS must inform the public of the levels of regulated PFASs measured in their drinking water and if an MCL is exceeded.
7. Summary and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Molecular Structure Names
CAS | Name |
---|---|
28462-90-0 | 2-(Pentafluoroethyl)imidazolidine |
2479-75-6 | 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoro-2-[1,1,2,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-(trifluoromethoxy)propoxy]propanoyl fluoride |
367-27-1 | 2,4-difluorophenol |
330548-64-6 | N-(2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,9,9,9-Heptadecafluorononanoyl)-L- |
124709-43-9 | 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoro-2-1,1,2,2,3,3-hexafluoro-3-[(trifluoroethenyl)oxy]propoxypropanenitrile |
89516-72-3 | 6-Azido-2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5-octafluoro-2,3,4,5-tetrahydropyridine |
425-19-4 | 2,2,3,3,4,4,4-Heptafluoro-1-(piperidin-1-yl)butan-1-one |
63573-65-9 | 2-Bromo-2,3-dichloro-1,1,1,4,4,4-hexafluorobutane |
20017-53-2 | Pentakis(pentafluoroethyl)pyridine |
60308-66-9 | 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoro-2-(heptafluoropropoxy)propanenitrile |
825628-55-5 | 2,3-Bis[(trifluoromethyl)sulfanyl]propan-1-ol |
399-69-9 | 2,6-Bis(trifluoromethyl)-1H-benzimidazole |
66406-80-2 | 1,1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4-Nonafluoro-4-(prop-1-ene-1-sulfonyl)butane |
83865-23-0 | (2,2-Dichloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethoxy)(difluoro)acetyl fluoride |
184362-57-0 | 3,3,4,5,5,6,7,8,9-Nonafluoro-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1-benzoxepine |
14919-09-6 | Decafluoroheptanedioic acid |
87579-39-3 | Methyl 2-[ethoxy(difluoro)methyl]-3,3,3-trifluoropropanoate |
NOCAS_1026753 | 1,1,1,2,2,3,4,5,5,5-Decafluoro-3-propoxy-4-(trifluoromethyl)pentane |
88628-84-6 | 5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,9,9,10,10,11,11,12,12,12-Heptadecafluorododecanal |
89608-30-0 | (4,4,5,5,6,6,6-Heptafluoro-2-iodohex-2-en-1-yl)(trimethyl)silane |
1140917-25-4 | 5-(2,2,3,3-tetrafluoro-1-methylcyclobutyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-amine |
1555-33-5 | Bis((perfluoroheptyl)methyl) phosphate |
74061-31-7 | Phenyl(tridecafluorohexyl)iodanium |
141206-73-7 | 1-Isocyano-3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzene |
231291-19-3 | 2-Bromo-3,4,4,4-tetrafluoro-3-(trifluoromethoxy)but-1-ene |
855743-12-3 | Ammonium 2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5-octafluoropentanolate |
1513864-19-1 | 3-(3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,9,9,10,10,10-Heptadecafluorodecane-1-sulfinyl)-2-hydroxy-N,N,N-trimethylpropan-1-aminium |
1463530-16-6 | 1-Nitro-3-(undecafluoropentyl)benzene |
201943-30-8 | [(2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5-Octafluoropentane-1-sulfonyl)methyl]benzene |
2485704-05-8 | 2:2 Fluorotelomer sulfonate |
NOCAS_1036631 | Dimethyl[3-(perfluorohexyl)-2-(formyloxy)propyl](2-oxoethyl)azanium |
85459-27-4 | 2,2,3,3-Tetrafluoropropyl 2-nitrobenzene-1-sulfonate |
141183-94-0 | 5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,9,9,10,10,11,11,12,12,12-Heptadecafluoro-2-methyldodecan-2-ol |
441765-18-0 | N-[(Perfluorooctyl)ethylsulfonyl]-N-propylglycine lithium salt |
31841-41-5 | 3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,9,9,10,10,10-Heptadecafluoro-N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-N-methyldecan-1-aminium iodide |
34839-44-6 | 3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,6-Nonafluorohexyl nitrate |
77146-66-8 | 2,2,3,3,4,4,4-Heptafluoro-N’-phenylbutanehydrazide |
129135-87-1 | Potassium bis(1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4,4-nonafluorobutane-1-sulfonyl)azanide |
67939-95-1 | N,N,N-Trimethyl-3-[(1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4,4-nonafluorobutane-1-sulfonyl)amino]propan-1-aminium iodide |
55801-89-3 | Chromium chloride-perfluorooctanoic acid complex |
421-06-7 | 2-Bromo-1,1,1-trifluoroethane |
104857-88-7 | Methyl 4,4,5,5,5-pentafluoro-3-oxopentanoate |
90441-62-6 | 3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,9,9,10,10,11,11-Octadecafluoroundec-1-yne |
42339-74-2 | 1-Bromo-1,1-dichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane |
14434-07-2 | 1,1,1-Trichloro-2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,5-nonafluoropentane |
109574-84-7 | 1,1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6-Tridecafluoro-8-iodotetradecane |
421-53-4 | 2,2,2-Trifluoroethane-1,1-diol |
99106-55-5 | 1,1,2,2-Tetrafluoropropyl 2-fluoroprop-2-enoate |
54207-74-8 | 3-[(3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,9,9,10,10,10-Heptadecafluorodecyl)sulfonyl]propanoic acid |
353-83-3 | 1,1,1-Trifluoro-2-iodoethane |
89807-87-4 | 2-(Nonafluorobutyl)oxirane |
1513864-18-0 | 2-Hydroxy-N,N,N-trimethyl-3-(3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,8-tridecafluorooctane-1-sulfinyl)propan-1-aminium |
757-02-8 | 2-Bromo-1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl sulfurofluoridate |
375-50-8 | 1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4-Octafluoro-1,4-diiodobutane |
1996-88-9 | 3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,9,9,10,10,10-Heptadecafluorodecyl 2-methylprop-2-enoate |
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PFAS | MCL (in ppt or Unitless *) | MCLG (in ppt or Unitless *) |
---|---|---|
PFOA | 4.0 | 0 |
PFOS | 4.0 | 0 |
PFNA | 10 | 10 |
PFHxS | 10 | 10 |
HFPO-DA (GenX) | 10 | 10 |
A mixture of 2 or more: | ||
PFHxS | ||
PFNA | 1 | 1 |
GenX | (hazard index) | (hazard index) |
PFBS |
Linear | Branched | Cyclic |
---|---|---|
Functional Group | Count | IUPAC Name | Example PFAS Structure |
---|---|---|---|
270 | formic acid | ||
19 | methoxyethane | ||
6 | propan-1-ol | ||
1 | Butanal | ||
1 | (2-iodoprop-2-en-1-yl)trimethylsilane |
Nonionic | Anionic | Cationic | Zwitterionic |
---|---|---|---|
Ultrashort | Short | Long |
---|---|---|
Sensor | Source |
---|---|
Molecularly Imprinted Polymers | [72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84] |
Quantum Dots | [85,86,87,88] |
Nanoparticles | [89,90,91,92] |
Large Nanoparticles | [89,90,92] |
Biosensors | [93,94,95,96,97] |
Metal Organic Frameworks | [98,99] |
Covalent Organic Frameworks | [100] |
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Medina, H.; Farmer, C. Current Challenges in Monitoring Low Contaminant Levels of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Water Matrices in the Field. Toxics 2024, 12, 610. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12080610
Medina H, Farmer C. Current Challenges in Monitoring Low Contaminant Levels of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Water Matrices in the Field. Toxics. 2024; 12(8):610. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12080610
Chicago/Turabian StyleMedina, Hector, and Carson Farmer. 2024. "Current Challenges in Monitoring Low Contaminant Levels of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Water Matrices in the Field" Toxics 12, no. 8: 610. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12080610