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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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26 pages, 9572 KiB  
Article
Geochemical Characteristics and Risk Assessment of PTEs in the Supergene Environment of the Former Zoige Uranium Mine
by Na Zhang, Zeming Shi, Chengjie Zou, Yinghai Zhu and Yun Hou
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 561; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070561 - 30 Jun 2025
Viewed by 328
Abstract
Carbonaceous–siliceous–argillaceous rock-type uranium deposits, a major uranium resource in China, pose significant environmental risks due to heavy metal contamination. Geochemical investigations in the former Zoige uranium mine revealed elevated As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, U, and Zn concentrations in soils and sediments, particularly [...] Read more.
Carbonaceous–siliceous–argillaceous rock-type uranium deposits, a major uranium resource in China, pose significant environmental risks due to heavy metal contamination. Geochemical investigations in the former Zoige uranium mine revealed elevated As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, U, and Zn concentrations in soils and sediments, particularly at river confluences and downstream regions, attributed to leachate migration from ore bodies and tailings ponds. Surface samples exhibited high Cd bioavailability. The integrated BCR and mineral analysis reveals that Acid-soluble and reducible fractions of Ni, Cu, Zn, As, and Pb are governed by carbonate dissolution and Fe-Mn oxide dynamics via silicate weathering, while residual and oxidizable fractions show weak mineral-phase dependencies. Positive Matrix Factorization identified natural lithogenic, anthropogenic–natural composite, mining-related sources. Pollution assessments using geo-accumulation index and contamination factor demonstrated severe contamination disparities: soils showed extreme Cd pollution, moderate U, As, Zn contamination, and no Cr, Pb pollution (overall moderate risk); sediments exhibited extreme Cd pollution, moderate Ni, Zn, U levels, and negligible Cr, Pb impacts (overall extreme risk). USEPA health risk models indicated notable non-carcinogenic (higher in adults) and carcinogenic risks (higher in children) for both age groups. Ecological risk assessments categorized As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn as low risk, contrasting with Cd (extremely high risk) and sediment-bound U (high risk). These findings underscore mining legacy as a critical environmental stressor and highlight the necessity for multi-source pollution mitigation strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Heavy Metal Contamination in Soil)
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83 pages, 3664 KiB  
Review
Research Progress on Chemical Compositions, Pharmacological Activities, and Toxicities of Quinone Compounds in Traditional Chinese Medicines
by Zhe Li, Rui Yao, Hong Guo, Wenguang Jing, Xiaohan Guo, Xiaoqiu Liu, Yingni Pan, Pei Cao, Lei Zhang, Jianbo Yang, Xianlong Cheng and Feng Wei
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 559; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070559 - 30 Jun 2025
Viewed by 819
Abstract
With the continuous development of research on natural medicines, quinone compounds have become increasingly important in the research field of chemical constituents of natural treatments. However, there is a lack of in-depth and systematic collation of their types, distribution, pharmacological activities, and potential [...] Read more.
With the continuous development of research on natural medicines, quinone compounds have become increasingly important in the research field of chemical constituents of natural treatments. However, there is a lack of in-depth and systematic collation of their types, distribution, pharmacological activities, and potential toxicities. This article comprehensively reviews the structural types, biogenetic pathways, extraction and separation methods, structural identification techniques, pharmacological activities, and toxicities of quinone compounds. It is found that the main difficulties in the research of quinone compounds lie in the cumbersome traditional separation and structural identification processes, as well as the insufficient in-depth studies on the mechanisms of their activities and toxicities. This review aims to provide a reference for research on quinone compounds in natural products and offer ideas and suggestions for subsequent in-depth exploration of the pharmacological activities of quinone compounds, prevention and control of their toxicities, and the realization of rational drug use. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)
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28 pages, 829 KiB  
Systematic Review
Toxic Metal Content in Deciduous Teeth: A Systematic Review
by Ireneusz Zawiślak, Sylwia Kiryk, Jan Kiryk, Agnieszka Kotela, Julia Kensy, Mateusz Michalak, Jacek Matys and Maciej Dobrzyński
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 556; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070556 - 30 Jun 2025
Viewed by 579
Abstract
Deciduous teeth accumulate toxic metals until fully mineralized, making them a stable biological matrix for assessing chronic exposure during fetal and early postnatal life. Their metal content is influenced by environmental factors (e.g., industrial areas, mining sites) and individual factors (e.g., maternal diet, [...] Read more.
Deciduous teeth accumulate toxic metals until fully mineralized, making them a stable biological matrix for assessing chronic exposure during fetal and early postnatal life. Their metal content is influenced by environmental factors (e.g., industrial areas, mining sites) and individual factors (e.g., maternal diet, early nutrition, passive smoking). The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxic metal content in deciduous teeth and to identify factors contributing to its accumulation, as well as possible health implications. A systematic review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines and following the PICO framework. Quality assessment was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklist for quasi-experimental studies. The literature search was carried out in the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases using the following keywords: deciduous, milk, primary, decidua, teeth, dentition, heavy metal, toxic metals. A total of 134 articles were initially identified, with 95 remaining after duplicate removal. After screening, 75 articles were excluded: 71 did not meet the inclusion criteria, 3 were not available in English, and 1 lacked full-text access. Ultimately, 20 studies were included in the review. Toxic metal concentrations were determined using various analytical techniques, mainly inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). Higher levels of metals, especially lead, were observed in the teeth of children residing in industrial areas, near mines, or in regions affected by armed conflict. Although two out of five studies indicated a possible link between fathers’ smoking habits and elevated lead concentrations, no definitive relationship was established between secondhand smoke exposure and the levels of lead and cadmium found in dental tissue. Similarly, no definitive relationship was identified between mercury and lead content and the prevalence of autism. However, lower manganese levels were associated with the presence of autistic traits, weaker verbal performance, and reduced memory capacity. In conclusion, deciduous teeth represent a valuable biological material for assessing chronic prenatal and early postnatal exposure to toxic metals, which may serve as a starting point for further research into diseases of unknown etiology, such as autism, and in the future may have clinical significance in their prevention and treatment. And it is also important for monitoring environmental pollution levels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Metals and Radioactive Substances)
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19 pages, 2415 KiB  
Article
Coupled Effects of Polyethylene Microplastics and Cadmium on Soil–Plant Systems: Impact on Soil Properties and Cadmium Uptake in Lettuce
by Zhiqin Zhang and Boyuan Bi
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 555; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070555 - 30 Jun 2025
Viewed by 858
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) and cadmium (Cd) in the soil environment are expected to pose a serious threat to agricultural production. However, the effect of the interaction between them on the soil–plant system and the mechanism of MPs on plant Cd uptake are still unclear. [...] Read more.
Microplastics (MPs) and cadmium (Cd) in the soil environment are expected to pose a serious threat to agricultural production. However, the effect of the interaction between them on the soil–plant system and the mechanism of MPs on plant Cd uptake are still unclear. Therefore, the effects of different concentrations of polyethylene (PE-MPs, 0, 1.0% and 2.0%), alone or combined with Cd, on soil properties, plant growth and Cd uptake were investigated through pot experiments. The results showed that the single contamination of MPs and Cd and their interaction (MPs + Cd) significantly decreased soil moisture and pH; however, it increased soil organic matter (SOM) and total nitrogen (TN). Soil urease and catalase activities were significantly decreased and sucrase and alkaline phosphatase activities were increased with or without Cd addition. The exposure of PE and Cd, alone or combined, significantly and negatively affected plant biomass, photosynthetic parameters, and caused oxidative damage to plants, and the overall toxicity to plants increases with the increase in PE concentration. Moreover, co-pollution causes greater plant toxicity than the individual pollution of PE or Cd. Plants can resist oxidative stress by increasing superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD) activities. The heat map showed that soil environmental factors were significantly correlated with plant growth; and the results of redundancy analysis (RDA) indicated that for plant physiological characteristics, soil properties under PE, alone or co-contaminated with Cd, explained a total of 85.77% and 97.45%, respectively. This indicated that the alteration of the soil microenvironment is the key factor influencing plant growth. The results of the partial least squares path model (PLS-PM) indicated that plant oxidative damage and biomass had significant positive and negative direct effects on plant Cd uptake, respectively. The linear model of relative importance (%) further revealed in depth that soil moisture (relative importance: 33.60%) and plant biomass (relative importance: 20.23%) were, respectively, regarded as the most important soil environmental factors and plant indicators affecting their Cd uptake. This study provided theoretical support for assessing the risks of MPs and Cd co-pollution to agricultural ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)
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13 pages, 529 KiB  
Article
Emerging Pollutants in Chinstrap Penguins and Krill from Deception Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica)
by Miguel Motas, Silvia Jerez-Rodríguez, José Manuel Veiga-del-Baño, Juan José Ramos, José Oliva, Miguel Ángel Cámara, Pedro Andreo-Martínez and Simonetta Corsolini
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 549; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070549 - 29 Jun 2025
Viewed by 436
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the presence of emerging pollutants [perfluorinated compounds, phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA)] in chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica) and krill (Euphausia superba) from Deception Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica) to provide data on the occurrence [...] Read more.
This study aimed to evaluate the presence of emerging pollutants [perfluorinated compounds, phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA)] in chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica) and krill (Euphausia superba) from Deception Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica) to provide data on the occurrence of emerging pollutants in Antarctica. For this purpose, thirty-four samples were studied, including four samples of adult tissue and six samples of chick tissue, as well as krill samples from the area. The selected samples were subjected to extraction processes and subsequent analytical determination of perfluorooctane sulfonate, perfluorooctanoic acid, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and BPA using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Our results highlight that the analyzed organic pollutants, except for BPA, are clearly present in Pygoscelis antarctica and Euphausia superba from Deception Island. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment of Priority Substances)
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17 pages, 626 KiB  
Article
Exposure to Environmental Chemicals from Environmental Tobacco Smoking in Korean Adolescents
by Jung-Eum Lee, Ah-Reum Jo, Sunho Lee and Wanhyung Lee
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 546; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070546 - 29 Jun 2025
Viewed by 517
Abstract
Background: Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposes adolescents to various environmental toxins, potentially affecting their developmental health. However, limited research exists on the associations between ETS exposure and the bodily burdens of environmental chemicals on adolescents. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between [...] Read more.
Background: Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposes adolescents to various environmental toxins, potentially affecting their developmental health. However, limited research exists on the associations between ETS exposure and the bodily burdens of environmental chemicals on adolescents. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between ETS exposure and the concentration of various environmental chemicals in adolescents, utilizing urinary cotinine as an objective biomarker. Methods: Data from 828 adolescents aged 12–17 years participating in the Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) were analyzed. ETS exposure was assessed via self-reported questionnaires and confirmed by urinary cotinine measurements. Levels of 33 environmental chemicals, including heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates, phenols, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), were measured. Statistical analyses were conducted after adjusting for covariates. Results: Adolescents exposed to ETS showed significantly higher urinary cotinine and mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP) concentrations than non-exposed adolescents. Additionally, significant positive correlations were observed between urinary cotinine levels and metabolites of PAHs (NAP, OHFlu), phenols (BPA, BPS), phthalates (MMP), and VOCs (t,t-MA) after adjustments. However, ETS exposure was not significantly associated with heavy metal concentrations. Conclusions: This study described the association between ETS exposure and environmental chemicals. A trend has been identified between ETS exposure in adolescents and increased bodily concentrations of various environmental chemicals, including PAHs, phenols, phthalates, and VOCs. As adolescence is a critical developmental period of vulnerability to environmental toxins, reducing ETS exposure to protect adolescents’ health and prevent potential lifelong health effects should be emphasized. This study was based on a cross-sectional design, and some confounding factors and measurement limitations may exist. Therefore, caution is needed in interpreting causality, and further research is recommended to determine more precise causality and long-term health effects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)
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28 pages, 1903 KiB  
Article
PhotoChem Reference Chemical Database for the Development of New Alternative Photosafety Test Methods
by Ga-Young Lee, Jee-Hyun Hwang, Jeong-Hyun Hong, Seungjin Bae and Kyung-Min Lim
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 545; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070545 - 28 Jun 2025
Viewed by 515
Abstract
Photosafety assessments are a key requirement for the safe development of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and agrochemicals. Although in vitro methods are widely used for phototoxicity and photoallergy testing, their limited applicability and predictive power often necessitate supplemental in vivo studies. To address this, we [...] Read more.
Photosafety assessments are a key requirement for the safe development of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and agrochemicals. Although in vitro methods are widely used for phototoxicity and photoallergy testing, their limited applicability and predictive power often necessitate supplemental in vivo studies. To address this, we developed the PhotoChem Reference Chemical Database, comprising 251 reference compounds with curated data from in vitro, in vivo, and human studies. Using this database, we evaluated the predictive capacity of three OECD in vitro test guidelines—TG 432 (3T3 NRU), TG 495 (ROS assay), and TG 498 (reconstructed human epidermis)—by comparing the results against human and animal data. Against human reference data, all three test methods showed high sensitivity (≥82.6%) and strong overall accuracy: TG 432 (accuracy: 94.2% (49/52)), TG 495 (100% (27/27)), and TG 498 (86.7% (26/30)). In comparison with animal data, sensitivity remained high for all tests (≥92.0%), while specificity varied: TG 432 (54.3% (19/35)), TG 495 (63.6% (7/11)), and TG 498 (90.5% (19/21)). TG 498 demonstrated the most balanced performance in both sensitivity and specificity across datasets. We also analyzed 106 drug approvals from major regulatory agencies to assess real-world application of photosafety testing. Since the mid-2000s, the use of in vitro phototoxicity assays has steadily increased in Korea, particularly following the 2021 revision of the MFDS regulations. Test method preferences varied by region, with 3T3 NRU and ROS assays most widely used to evaluate phototoxicity, while photo-LLNA and guinea pig tests were frequently employed for photoallergy assay. Collectively, this study provides a valuable reference for optimizing test method selection and supports the broader adoption of validated, human-relevant non-animal photosafety assessment strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Approach Methodologies for Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)
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20 pages, 1321 KiB  
Review
Arsenic Exposure and Neuropsychological Outcomes in Children: A Scoping Review
by Leyre Notario-Barandiaran, Laura M. Compañ-Gabucio, Julia A. Bauer, Jesús Vioque, Margaret R. Karagas and Antonio J. Signes-Pastor
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 542; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070542 - 28 Jun 2025
Viewed by 591
Abstract
A child’s exposure to arsenic (As) can begin in utero through placental transfer to the fetus. There is a growing body of epidemiologic evidence suggesting an association between As exposure and neuropsychological development. Therefore, our objective was to describe the consequences of maternal [...] Read more.
A child’s exposure to arsenic (As) can begin in utero through placental transfer to the fetus. There is a growing body of epidemiologic evidence suggesting an association between As exposure and neuropsychological development. Therefore, our objective was to describe the consequences of maternal and/or childhood As exposure on children’s neuropsychological development. We conducted a scoping review with a systematic search of the PubMed, Scopus, EMBASE, Web of Science, and PsycINFO databases. We included studies that assessed the association between maternal and/or childhood As exposure and neuropsychological development in children up to an average of 12 years of age. A total of 77 studies were included, most of which were published between 2020 and 2024 (44.1%), conducted in the United States of America (18.2%) and Bangladesh (16.9%), and involved participants with a median age of 6.6 years. Most studies performed cross-sectional analyses (51.9%) and assessed exposure to elements other than As (64.9%). Childhood was the most frequently studied exposure window (57.2%), and urine was the most commonly used biomarker of exposure (58.4%), followed by blood or serum (32.3%). Cognition was the most frequently evaluated neuropsychological domain (94.8%), followed by psychomotor function (40.3%) and social–emotional function (29.9%). Most studies reported evidence of a negative impact of As exposure on children’s neuropsychological development (73.7%), while some found no changes (27.3%) and a few suggested an improvement (1.3%). An important limitation is that most studies measured total urinary As without speciation into inorganic versus organic forms, which limits the validity of dose–response conclusions based on total arsenic concentrations. This review highlights the potential deleterious neuropsychological effects of maternal and/or childhood As exposure while also identifying areas where the evidence remains inconclusive. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Potentially Toxic Elements Pollution in Urban and Suburban Environments II)
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16 pages, 1542 KiB  
Article
Exposure to 6-PPD Quinone Disrupts Adsorption and Catabolism of Leucine and Causes Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Caenorhabditis elegans
by Wei Wang, Yunhui Li and Dayong Wang
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070544 - 28 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 449
Abstract
6-PPD quinone (6-PPDQ) is a derivative from 6-PPD, an antioxidant added in tires. Leucine is an important amino acid that needs to be obtained from the diet. In Caenorhabditis elegans, we examined the effect of 6-PPDQ exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations (ERCs) [...] Read more.
6-PPD quinone (6-PPDQ) is a derivative from 6-PPD, an antioxidant added in tires. Leucine is an important amino acid that needs to be obtained from the diet. In Caenorhabditis elegans, we examined the effect of 6-PPDQ exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations (ERCs) on the content of leucine and underlying mechanisms. In nematodes, 0.1–10 μg/L of 6-PPDQ decreased leucine content. The expression of the aat-1-encoding amino acid transmembrane transporter was decreased by 0.1–10 μg/L of 6-PPDQ, and leucine content was reduced by aat-1 RNAi. Meanwhile, the expression of bcat-1-encoding branched-chain amino acid transferase was increased by 0.1–10 μg/L of 6-PPDQ, and leucine content was increased by bcat-1 RNAi. Additionally, the expressions of dbt-1 and ivd-1 encoding two enzyme genes governing NADH and FADH2 generations were decreased by 0.1–10 μg/L of 6-PPDQ, and their expressions in 6-PPDQ exposed nematodes were increased by bcat-1 RNAi. After 6-PPDQ exposure, NADH content was reduced by dbt-1 RNAi, and FADH2 content was reduced by ivd-1 RNAi. Moreover, 6-PPDQ-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and other aspects of toxicity (such as intestinal ROS generation and lipofuscin accumulation, inhibited locomotion, and reduced brood size) were suppressed by bcat-1 RNAi and strengthened by dbt-1 and ivd-1 RNAi. The 6-PPDQ-induced toxicity and the decrease in dbt-1 and ivd-1 expressions could be inhibited by following leucine (5 mM) treatment. Our results demonstrate the important association of leucine adsorption and catabolism with 6-PPDQ toxicity induction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)
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17 pages, 1965 KiB  
Article
The Effect of the Antidepressant Citalopram on the Bioconcentration and Biomarker Response of Daphnia magna at Environmentally Relevant Concentrations
by Haohan Yang, Jiacheng Tan, Hanyu Jiang, Hao Xing, Jingnan Zhang, Dexin Kong, Zhuoyu Chen and Linghui Kong
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 532; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070532 - 25 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 423
Abstract
The widespread use and pseudo-persistent occurrence of the antidepressant citalopram (CIT) could pose a potential ecological risk in the aquatic environment. The message about the bioconcentration and sensitive biomarker identification of CIT at the environmentally relevant concentrations is limited. In this study, an [...] Read more.
The widespread use and pseudo-persistent occurrence of the antidepressant citalopram (CIT) could pose a potential ecological risk in the aquatic environment. The message about the bioconcentration and sensitive biomarker identification of CIT at the environmentally relevant concentrations is limited. In this study, an integral evaluation of the phenotypic and biochemical effects of CIT on Daphnia magna (D. magna) was conducted at 0.5 and 10 µg/L. The biomarker screening includes energy metabolism, phototactic behavior, feeding dysfunction, and antioxidant stress responses. The carbohydrate, lipid, and protein content was determined using the assay of anthrone with glucose as standard, thiophosphorate-Vaniline with cholesterol as standard, and Coomassie brilliant blue with serum albumin as standard, respectively. The results showed the bioconcentration equilibrium of CIT reached at the exposure duration of 48 h during the uptake process. At the exposure concentrations of 0.5 and 10 µg/L, the bioconcentration factor of CIT was 571.2 and 67.4 L/kg, respectively. Both protein and lipid content significantly increased at 0.5 µg/L with a 1.78-fold elevation in total energy. Comparatively, the lipid content showed a significant increase at 10 µg/L, while the available total energy rose by 1.25-fold relative to the control group. The phototactic behavior of D. magna exposed to 0.5 µg/L CIT was markedly reduced at 48 h relative to control. In contrast, a significant decrease in phototaxis was observed after 6 h and then a significant increase at 12 h with a continuously obvious decline at 10 µg/L. The filtration rates were increased by 32% compared to controls at 0.5 µg/L, while the stimulatory effects disappeared at 10 µg/L. With regarding to the antioxidant enzyme activities, CIT exposure significantly inhibited the catalase activity both at 0.5 and 10 µg/L, while the glutathione S-transferase activity was obviously induced at 0.5 µg/L and inhibited at 10 µg/L. The expression level of 18s gene was significantly decreased at 10 µg/L. Only the gst gene expression level was significantly increased at 0.5 µg/L, while the 18s and cat gene expression level was obviously inhibited and induced at 10 µg/L. Comprehensively, the responses of the phenotypic traits and energy metabolism of D. magna at various environmental concentrations were sensitive for CIT. This study provided basic data for the risk estimation of CIT in the real freshwater environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxidative Degradation and Toxicity of Environmental Pollutants)
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15 pages, 2063 KiB  
Article
Metabolic Disruptions in Zebrafish Induced by α-Cypermethrin: A Targeted Metabolomics Study
by Hang-Ji Ok, Ji-Woo Yu, Jung-Hoon Lee, Eun-Song Choi, Jong-Hwan Kim, Yoonjeong Jeon, Won Noh, Sung-Gil Choi, Jeong-Han Kim, Min-Ho Song and Ji-Ho Lee
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 529; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070529 - 24 Jun 2025
Viewed by 701
Abstract
The widespread application of pesticides in agriculture has raised increasing concerns regarding their ecological impact, particularly in aquatic environments. Among these, α-cypermethrin, a highly active isomeric form of cypermethrin, has been extensively used due to its potent insecticidal efficacy and low mammalian toxicity. [...] Read more.
The widespread application of pesticides in agriculture has raised increasing concerns regarding their ecological impact, particularly in aquatic environments. Among these, α-cypermethrin, a highly active isomeric form of cypermethrin, has been extensively used due to its potent insecticidal efficacy and low mammalian toxicity. However, its toxicity to non-target aquatic organisms remains insufficiently understood at the metabolic level. In this study, a targeted metabolomics approach was employed to investigate the biochemical effects of α-cypermethrin in adult zebrafish. Acute toxicity was first determined to establish sublethal exposure concentrations (0.15 µg/L and 1.5 µg/L), followed by a 48 h exposure under a controlled flow-through system. GC-MS/MS-based analysis quantified 395 metabolites, and multivariate statistical models (principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least square-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA)) revealed clear dose-dependent metabolic alterations at two time points. Pathway analysis identified disruptions in glycolysis, glycerolipid metabolism, amino acid turnover, and glutathione pathways. Notably, glutamate depletion and associated reductions in GABA (4-Aminobutanoate) and TCA (Tricarboxylic acid) cycle intermediates suggest oxidative stress-induced metabolic bottlenecks. These results provide mechanistic insights into α-cypermethrin-induced toxicity and demonstrate the utility of metabolite-level biomarkers for environmental monitoring. This study contributes to a systems-level understanding of how sublethal pesticide exposure affects vertebrate metabolism, offering a basis for improved ecological risk assessment and pesticide regulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxic Pollutants and Ecological Risk in Aquatic Environments)
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23 pages, 1628 KiB  
Article
Non-Targeted Analysis (NTA) of Plasma and Liver from Sprague Dawley Rats Exposed to Perfluorohexanesulfonamide (PFHxSA), a Precursor to Perfluorohexane Sulfonic Acid (PFHxS)
by Denise K. MacMillan, Jackson G. Bounds, William A. Willis, Mark J. Strynar, Barbara A. Wetmore, Richard J. Liberatore, James P. McCord and Michael J. Devito
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 523; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070523 - 21 Jun 2025
Viewed by 636
Abstract
High-resolution accurate mass non-targeted analysis (NTA) is a useful discovery tool for metabolite characterization of in vivo dosing studies since it enables detection of both predicted and unexpected biotransformation products. We used NTA to investigate biotransformation of perfluorohexanesulfonamide (PFHxSA) in plasma and liver [...] Read more.
High-resolution accurate mass non-targeted analysis (NTA) is a useful discovery tool for metabolite characterization of in vivo dosing studies since it enables detection of both predicted and unexpected biotransformation products. We used NTA to investigate biotransformation of perfluorohexanesulfonamide (PFHxSA) in plasma and liver from male and female Sprague Dawley rats after a 5-day repeat exposure study. PFHxSA is an emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) with unknown toxicity and a potentially reactive headgroup. NTA revealed the presence of predicted in vivo biotransformation products (BP) such as perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS) and perfluorohexanesulfinic acid (PFHxSi). PFHxSi also has unknown toxicity and has not, to our knowledge, been previously reported as a PFHxSA BP in mammals. Multiple perfluoroalkyl ether sulfonamides, associated BPs, and novel PFAS were also detected in rat plasma and liver. We observed sex-specific distributions of the dosed compound and BPs, suggesting different toxicokinetics and biological responses. The presence of a complex mixture of predicted and unexpected PFAS in plasma and liver not only mimics the complexity of environmental exposure but also highlights the need for toxicity testing with mixtures and a more complete assessment of dosing solution purity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue PFAS Toxicology and Metabolism—2nd Edition)
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22 pages, 1686 KiB  
Article
Removal of the Antibiotic Amoxicillin from Polluted Freshwater by Biosorption Using the Living Biomass of the Microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
by David Fernández, Julio Abalde and Enrique Torres
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 520; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070520 - 21 Jun 2025
Viewed by 361
Abstract
The environment is undergoing a constant incorporation of new pollutants, which must be eliminated to avoid toxicity problems. Amoxicillin (AMX) is a widely used antibiotic today, and for this reason, it reaches natural media with the consequent environmental risk. Biosorption is an effective [...] Read more.
The environment is undergoing a constant incorporation of new pollutants, which must be eliminated to avoid toxicity problems. Amoxicillin (AMX) is a widely used antibiotic today, and for this reason, it reaches natural media with the consequent environmental risk. Biosorption is an effective and environmentally friendly solution which can be used for the removal of AMX. In the present study, the properties of the living biomass of the microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii were studied to determine the capacity of this biomass to remove AMX. This biomass has demonstrated to have good qualities to remove AMX with a maximum capacity of 12.72 ± 0.57 mg g−1. Light was an important factor in increasing the removal capacity of this living biomass by 35.2%. Although this antibiotic underwent spontaneous degradation (unaffected by light), the presence of the biomass increased the amount removed and the removal rate. The amount removed by this biomass in the presence of light was always higher than the amount lost by spontaneous degradation. The kinetics that best adjusted was pseudo-second order. Maximum removal was obtained at pH 6. A point of zero charge and Fourier transform infrared spectrometry were used to characterize the biomass and study the process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Environmental Remediation: Research Advances Towards a Comprehensive Sustainability Approach)
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22 pages, 2332 KiB  
Review
Glutamate-Mediated Neural Alterations in Lead Exposure: Mechanisms, Pathways, and Phenotypes
by Wagner A. Tamagno and Jennifer L. Freeman
Toxics 2025, 13(7), 519; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070519 - 21 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 709
Abstract
Lead (Pb) is a pervasive neurotoxicant with well-documented detrimental effects on the central nervous system, particularly in vulnerable populations such as children. Despite historical recognition of its toxicity, Pb exposure remains a significant public health concern due to its environmental persistence, historical industrial [...] Read more.
Lead (Pb) is a pervasive neurotoxicant with well-documented detrimental effects on the central nervous system, particularly in vulnerable populations such as children. Despite historical recognition of its toxicity, Pb exposure remains a significant public health concern due to its environmental persistence, historical industrial use, and ongoing applications in modern technologies. This review focuses on the mechanisms by which Pb disrupts glutamatergic signaling, a critical pathway for learning, memory, and synaptic plasticity. Pb’s interference with glutamate receptors (ionotropic NMDA and AMPA, as well as metabotropic receptors), transporters (EAATs, VGLUTs, and SNATs), and metabolic pathways (glutamate–glutamine cycle, TCA cycle, and glutathione synthesis) are detailed. By mimicking divalent cations like Ca2+ and Zn2+, Pb2+ disrupts calcium homeostasis, exacerbates excitotoxicity, and induces oxidative stress, ultimately impairing neuronal communication and synaptic function. These molecular disruptions manifest cognitive deficits, behavioral abnormalities, and increased susceptibility to neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. Understanding Pb’s impact on glutamatergic neurotransmission offers critical insights into its neurotoxic profile and highlights the importance of addressing its effects on neural function. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Neuroexposome: Integrating Exposures with Physiology to Understand Brain Health and Disease)
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15 pages, 842 KiB  
Article
Bioassay Using the DR-EcoScreen System to Measure Dioxin-Related Compounds in Serum Samples from Individuals Exposed to Dioxins Originating from Agent Orange in Vietnam
by Masafumi Nakamura, Ryo Matsuda, Hoa Thi Vu, Tai Pham-The, Thao Ngoc Pham, Tomoya Takiguchi, Hisao Nishijo and Muneko Nishijo
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060513 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 744
Abstract
A bioassay for dioxin analysis of human samples has the advantages of cost effectiveness and requiring only a small sample volume. Using a DR-EcoScreen bioassay, we measured the biological equivalency (BEQ) levels in serum samples from 32 men exposed to dioxins in Bien [...] Read more.
A bioassay for dioxin analysis of human samples has the advantages of cost effectiveness and requiring only a small sample volume. Using a DR-EcoScreen bioassay, we measured the biological equivalency (BEQ) levels in serum samples from 32 men exposed to dioxins in Bien Hoa and 32 unexposed men in Hanoi, Vietnam. For the Bien Hoa men, the World Health Organization toxic equivalent (WHO-TEQ) levels of dioxins had already been measured by instrumental analysis. The difference in fat-based BEQ levels between exposed and unexposed men was greater than for crude BEQ levels, with a strong correlation between fat-based BEQ and WHO-TEQ levels. The fat-based BEQ levels in Bien Hoa men with longer residency but lower WHO-TEQ levels were significantly higher than those in unexposed men and Bien Hoa men with shorter residency but higher WHO-TEQs, suggesting that fat-based BEQ may be an effective marker of dioxin-like activity. Additionally, comparisons of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and TEQs between shorter- and longer-residency groups indicated that higher levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), particularly TCDD, contribute to increased BEQ levels. Taken together, the DR-EcoScreen bioassay may be useful to analyze dioxin-like activity associated with WHO-TEQs of men in a dioxin contamination hotspot originating from Agent Orange in Vietnam. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)
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16 pages, 7517 KiB  
Article
The Development and Toxicological Evaluation of Novel Polyurethane Materials
by Maolan Zhang, Xuanran Luo, Maocai Jiang, Yu Wen, Peng Wang, Peixing Chen and Da Sun
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 512; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060512 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 996
Abstract
Polyurethane (PU) is widely employed in the biomedical field. As application scenarios become increasingly complex, it is essential to modify PU to meet diverse requirements. Additionally, the degradation of PU is closely linked to the sustainability of its function, with degradation products having [...] Read more.
Polyurethane (PU) is widely employed in the biomedical field. As application scenarios become increasingly complex, it is essential to modify PU to meet diverse requirements. Additionally, the degradation of PU is closely linked to the sustainability of its function, with degradation products having a direct impact on adjacent tissues. In this study, a novel PU containing double bonds in its main chain was developed. We investigated the influence of various ratios of soft segment composition on the degradation performance of PU, maintaining a fixed ratio of soft to hard segments and utilizing specific synthesis methods. The structure and molecular weight of the PU were analyzed using FTIR, NMR, and GPC techniques. The results of physical and chemical performance tests indicated that an increase in polycaprolactone diol (PCL diol) content within the soft segment enhanced the mechanical properties, hydrophobicity, and degradation performance of the PU. A further assessment of the degradation toxicity of PU was carried out using zebrafish as a model organism. The findings indicated that the degradation solution of PU exhibited slight toxicity to zebrafish embryonic development over prolonged degradation periods. However, it also significantly enhanced the hatching of zebrafish embryos. In summary, the novel PU developed in this study demonstrates favorable biocompatibility, and the approach of introducing reaction sites or modifying the composition of its soft segments within the molecular structure offers a promising and effective strategy to address specific application requirements. Full article
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12 pages, 1445 KiB  
Article
Does Electromagnetic Pollution in the ART Laboratory Affect Sperm Quality? A Cross-Sectional Observational Study
by Giorgio Maria Baldini, Dario Lot, Daniele Ferri, Luigi Montano, Mario Valerio Tartagni, Antonio Malvasi, Antonio Simone Laganà, Mario Palumbo, Domenico Baldini and Giuseppe Trojano
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060510 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 849
Abstract
In recent decades, exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) generated by standard devices has raised concerns about possible effects on reproductive health. This cross-sectional observational study examined the impact of EMFs on sperm motility in a sample of 102 healthy males aged 20–35 years [...] Read more.
In recent decades, exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) generated by standard devices has raised concerns about possible effects on reproductive health. This cross-sectional observational study examined the impact of EMFs on sperm motility in a sample of 102 healthy males aged 20–35 years in the IVF laboratory. Semen samples were exposed to different sources of EMF for one hour, and motility was assessed immediately thereafter. The results showed a significant reduction in progressive sperm motility after exposure to EMFs generated by mobile phones and Wi-Fi repeaters in the laboratory. In contrast, other equipment showed no significant effects. The study demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in progressive sperm motility following in vitro exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) emitted by mobile communication devices and wireless local area network access points. Conversely, other electromagnetic emitting devices evaluated did not elicit significant alterations in this parameter. These findings suggest a potential negative impact of specific EMF sources on semen quality, underscoring the necessity for further comprehensive research to elucidate the clinical implications and to develop potential mitigation strategies aimed at reducing risks to male reproductive health. This study discourages the introduction of mobile phones in IVF laboratories and recommends positioning Wi-Fi repeaters on the ceiling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity)
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14 pages, 4066 KiB  
Article
Microplastics in Stormwater: Sampling and Methodology Challenges
by Andres Sanchez Garcia, Huayun Zhou, Cesar Gomez-Avila, Tariq Hussain, Aryan Roghani, Danny Reible and Balaji Anandha Rao
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 502; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060502 - 14 Jun 2025
Viewed by 745
Abstract
Stormwater runoff is a significant source of microplastics to surface water. This study addresses challenges in the sampling, treatment, and characterization of microplastics in existing stormwater control measures across various regions in the United States. Stormwater sediment samples were collected via traditional stormwater [...] Read more.
Stormwater runoff is a significant source of microplastics to surface water. This study addresses challenges in the sampling, treatment, and characterization of microplastics in existing stormwater control measures across various regions in the United States. Stormwater sediment samples were collected via traditional stormwater sampling approaches for particulate and inorganic contamination with portable automatic samplers, analyzed using visible and fluorescence microscopy with Nile red as a selective stain, and subsequently confirmed through Raman spectroscopy. The inclusion of laboratory and field blanks enabled the identification of contamination at key steps during sample handling. The results reveal that the filtration process is a significant source of laboratory contamination, while the sampling process itself could be a primary contributor to overall sample contamination. Additionally, it was found that using green fluorescence as the sole emission wavelength may underestimate MP quantities, as some particles emit fluorescence exclusively in the red spectrum. Raman analysis revealed interferences caused by pigments and additives in plastics, along with challenges evaluating particles in the low micron range (≤10 microns), which complicates a comprehensive analysis. The findings of this study emphasize the importance of implementing strong quality assurance and control measures when assessing the levels of microplastics in the environment, including sample collection, processing, and analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) in the Water Cycle)
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21 pages, 2219 KiB  
Article
Association of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances with Pan-Cancers Associated with Sex Hormones
by Elizabeth Olarewaju and Emmanuel Obeng-Gyasi
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060501 - 14 Jun 2025
Viewed by 679
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants with potential endocrine-disrupting properties. This study examines the association between exposure to multiple PFASs and pan-cancers associated with sex hormones (PCSH) while accounting for potential non-linear relationships and interactions. We analyzed data from the [...] Read more.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants with potential endocrine-disrupting properties. This study examines the association between exposure to multiple PFASs and pan-cancers associated with sex hormones (PCSH) while accounting for potential non-linear relationships and interactions. We analyzed data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), spanning two-year cycles from 1999 to 2012 and including 14,373 participants. Serum concentrations of six PFAS—perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDE), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUA)—were assessed for their relationship with PCSH. The statistical analyses included descriptive statistics, Spearman and Pearson correlation analyses, and both linear and logistic regression models. Additionally, Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) was applied to capture potential nonlinear relationships and interactions. The initial t-tests showed a statistically significant difference in PFOS levels between individuals with and without PCSH (p = 0.0022), with higher mean PFOS levels in the PCSH group. Chi-square tests revealed a significant association between ethnicity and PCSH (p < 0.001). Linear and logistic regression analyses revealed significant associations for PFOS. BKMR analysis identified PFOA as having the highest posterior inclusion probability, indicating its importance in explaining PCSH risk. Univariate exposure-response analysis revealed limited individual PFAS effects. However, bivariate analysis indicated a complex U-shaped interaction pattern among many joint PFAS assessments. The overall exposure effect analysis suggested that the combined impact of all PFASs was more strongly associated with PCSH at exposure levels below the 0.5 quantile compared to higher levels. Single-variable interaction analyses highlighted PFOA and PFOS as the most interactive PFASs when evaluating their interaction with combined exposure to all other PFASs. In summary, while the initial findings suggested a positive association between PFOS and PCSH, the BKMR analysis revealed complex non-linear relationships and interactions among PFAS. These findings highlight the importance of evaluating PFASs as a mixture rather than as individual chemicals and using techniques that can capture non-linear relationships and interactions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)
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19 pages, 9490 KiB  
Article
Source Analysis of Ozone Pollution in Liaoyuan City’s Atmosphere Based on Machine Learning Models and HYSPLIT Clustering Method
by Xinyu Zou, Xinlong Li, Dali Wang and Ju Wang
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 500; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060500 - 13 Jun 2025
Viewed by 683
Abstract
Firstly, this study investigates the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of the ozone (O3) pollution in Liaoyuan City using monitoring data from 2015 to 2024. Then, three machine learning models (ML)—random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), and artificial neural network (ANN)—are employed [...] Read more.
Firstly, this study investigates the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of the ozone (O3) pollution in Liaoyuan City using monitoring data from 2015 to 2024. Then, three machine learning models (ML)—random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), and artificial neural network (ANN)—are employed to quantify the influence of meteorological and non-meteorological factors on O3 concentrations. Finally, the HYSPLIT clustering method and CMAQ model are utilized to analyze inter-regional transport characteristics, identifying the causes of O3 pollution. The results indicate that O3 pollution in Liaoyuan exhibits a distinct seasonal pattern, with the highest concentrations found in spring and summer, peaking in the afternoon. Among the three ML models, the random forest model demonstrates the best predictive performance (R2 = 0.9043). Feature importance identifies NO2 as the primary driving factor, followed by meteorological conditions in the second quarter and land surface characteristics. Furthermore, regional transport significantly contributes to O3 pollution, with approximately 80% of air mass trajectories in heavily polluted episodes originating from adjacent industrial areas and the sea. The combined effects of transboundary precursors and O3 transport with local emissions and meteorological conditions further increase the O3 pollution level. This study highlights the need to strengthen coordinated NOX and VOCs emission reductions and enhance regional joint prevention and control strategies in China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Classical Environmental Process Modeling, Interpretable Machine Learning, and Their Integrative Innovations—Targeting Atmospheric, Water, and Soil)
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18 pages, 1047 KiB  
Article
Heavy Metal Contamination in Yogurt from Lebanon: Evaluating Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) Concentrations Across Multiple Regions
by Sandra Sarkis, Rayan Kashmar, Nikolaos Tzenios, Maha Hoteit, Tony Tannous and Joseph Matta
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 499; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060499 - 13 Jun 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 782
Abstract
The toxicity of metals such as lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) makes heavy metal contamination in food products a major health concern. The aim of this study is to measure the levels of Pb and Cd in yogurt samples that were collected from [...] Read more.
The toxicity of metals such as lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) makes heavy metal contamination in food products a major health concern. The aim of this study is to measure the levels of Pb and Cd in yogurt samples that were collected from 11 distinct Lebanese locations and determine their compliance with the legal limits set by the European Commission (0.02 mg/kg for Pb and 0.005 mg/kg for Cd). A total of 165 yogurt samples were examined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). Interestingly, the findings showed that 10.9% of samples had Pb concentrations over the allowable limit; the highest amounts were observed in Baalbeck-Hermel (0.118 mg/kg), North Area (0.125 mg/kg), and South Lebanon (0.115 mg/kg). In addition, the highest detected concentrations of Cd were found in North Area (0.094 mg/kg), Baalbeck-Hermel (0.076 mg/kg), and Akkar (0.042 mg/kg), with 14.5% of samples above the limit. The results show regional differences in contamination, which are probably caused by industrial emissions, agricultural activities, and environmental pollution. To better understand the potential health implications, the estimated daily intake (EDI) of Pb and Cd through yogurt consumption was calculated and compared to international health-based guidance values. Although the EDI values suggest a low risk from yogurt alone, the findings highlight the importance of cumulative exposure and emphasize the necessity of regular monitoring and stricter implementation of food safety laws to decrease exposure to heavy metals through dairy intake. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Safety Assessment of Exposure to Heavy Metals)
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16 pages, 832 KiB  
Article
Association of Urinary Cadmium and Antimony with Osteoporosis Risk in Postmenopausal Brazilian Women: Insights from a 20 Metal(loid) Biomonitoring Study
by Carlos Tadashi Kunioka, Vanessa Cristina de Oliveira Souza, Bruno Alves Rocha, Fernando Barbosa Júnior, Luís Belo, Maria Conceição Manso and Márcia Carvalho
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 489; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060489 - 10 Jun 2025
Viewed by 650
Abstract
Osteoporosis is a major public health concern, particularly among postmenopausal women. Environmental exposure to metals has been proposed as a potential contributor to osteoporosis, but human data remain limited and inconsistent. This study investigated changes in urinary concentrations of 20 metal(loid)s in patients [...] Read more.
Osteoporosis is a major public health concern, particularly among postmenopausal women. Environmental exposure to metals has been proposed as a potential contributor to osteoporosis, but human data remain limited and inconsistent. This study investigated changes in urinary concentrations of 20 metal(loid)s in patients with osteoporosis, as well as the association of these elements with bone mineral density (BMD), in a cohort of 380 postmenopausal women aged 50–70 years from Cascavel, Paraná, Brazil. Demographic, lifestyle, and clinical data were collected, and urinary concentrations of aluminum (Al), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), cesium (Cs), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), lithium (Li), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), rubidium (Rb), antimony (Sb), selenium (Se), tin (Sn), strontium (Sr), thallium (Tl), uranium (U), and zinc (Zn) were measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. BMD was assessed at the lumbar spine, femoral neck, and total hip using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Osteoporosis was diagnosed in 73 participants (19.2%). Osteoporotic women had significantly higher urinary concentrations of Cd, Mn, Pb, Sb, Sn, and Zn (p < 0.05). Statistically significant negative correlations were observed between BMD and urinary concentrations of Al, Cd, Hg, Mn, Sb, and U. After adjustment for confounders, elevated urinary concentrations of Cd, Mn, Pb, and Sb remained independently and significantly associated with higher odds of osteoporosis, with Cd (aOR = 1.495; p = 0.026) and Sb (aOR = 2.059; p = 0.030) showing the strongest associations. In addition, women with urinary concentrations above the 90th percentile for both Cd and Sb had a significantly higher prevalence of osteoporosis compared to those with lower levels (44.4% vs. 18.0%; p = 0.011). Longitudinal studies are needed to confirm causality and inform prevention strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metal Contamination and Its Effects on Ecosystems and Human Health: Challenges and Solutions)
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17 pages, 7191 KiB  
Article
Network Toxicology and Molecular Docking to Elucidate the Mechanisms of Intestinal Toxicity Induced by P-Phenylenediamine Antioxidants and Their Quinone Derivatives
by Hui Zou, Yumei Tan, Xiyi Ren, Zhu Li and Yongxiang Liu
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060480 - 6 Jun 2025
Viewed by 832
Abstract
P-phenylenediamines (PPDs) and their quinone derivatives (PPDQs), emerging pollutants widespread in urban environments, exhibit biotoxicological risks. Epidemiological studies suggest their adverse impacts on intestinal health, yet the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the potential mechanisms of enterotoxicity induced by [...] Read more.
P-phenylenediamines (PPDs) and their quinone derivatives (PPDQs), emerging pollutants widespread in urban environments, exhibit biotoxicological risks. Epidemiological studies suggest their adverse impacts on intestinal health, yet the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the potential mechanisms of enterotoxicity induced by 13 PPDs and PPDQs using network toxicology and molecular docking approaches. Through the SuperPred, STITCH, GeneCards, and OMIM databases, 182 potential targets associated with PPD- and PPDQ-induced enterotoxicity were identified. Thirty hub targets, including SRC, EGFR, CASP3, and others, were prioritized using STRING and Cytoscape tools. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses via the DAVID and FUMA databases revealed significant enrichment of core enterotoxicity-related targets in the MAPK signaling pathway and the calcium signaling pathway. Molecular docking with AutoDock confirmed strong binding affinities between PPDs/PPDQs and core targets. These results suggest that PPDs and PPDQs may promote the onset and progression of bowel cancer and intestinal inflammation by modulating cancer cell death, proliferation, and inflammatory signaling pathways. This research provides a theoretical framework for elucidating the molecular mechanisms of PPD- and PPDQ-induced enterotoxicity, offering insights for the prevention of associated diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Novel Methods in Toxicology Research)
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17 pages, 2051 KiB  
Article
Comparative Toxicokinetics and Biomarker Responses of Typical Psychiatric Pharmaceuticals in Daphnia magna
by Haohan Yang, Hao Xing, Zhuoyu Chen, Linghui Kong, Hanyu Jiang and Tengyi Zhu
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060481 - 6 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 505
Abstract
The widespread availability and pseudo-persistence of typical psychiatric pharmaceuticals (PDs) can have serious impacts on aquatic ecosystems and even human health. However, the toxicokinetics of typical PDs and the corresponding enzymatic biomarker responses are unclear. In this study, eight typical PDs [carbamazepine (CBZ), [...] Read more.
The widespread availability and pseudo-persistence of typical psychiatric pharmaceuticals (PDs) can have serious impacts on aquatic ecosystems and even human health. However, the toxicokinetics of typical PDs and the corresponding enzymatic biomarker responses are unclear. In this study, eight typical PDs [carbamazepine (CBZ), citalopram (CIT), sertraline (SER), venlafaxine (VLF), amitriptyline (AMT), chlorpromazine (CPM), quetiapine (QTP) and clozapine (CLZ)] were selected to study the uptake, depuration and biological effects of PDs in Daphnia magna. The results found that the uptake rates (Ku) were in the sequence of VLF < QTP < CBZ < CLZ < CIT < AMT < SER < CPM, while the depuration rates (Kd) were in the order of CLZ < AMT < CIT < SER < QTP < CBZ < CPM < VLF. Correspondingly, the bioconcentration factors (BCFs) followed on as VLF < QTP < CBZ < CIT < AMT < CLZ < SER < CPM. Both pH-dependent octanol–water partition coefficients (log Dow) and liposome–water partition coefficients (log Dlip-w) exhibited positive correlations with the log BCF of PDs (p < 0.05), indicating the important roles of ionization degree and biological phospholipid contents on bioconcentration. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities were evidently induced in the SER and CPM groups, while ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activities were significantly induced only in the CBZ group. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was obviously induced by CBZ, SER and AMT, with levels 1.73, 1.62 and 2.44 times that of the control group (p < 0.05). The Ku of PDs, oxidative stress and metabolic level of D. magna combine to affect BCF levels together. In conclusion, this study contributes to a better understanding of the toxicokinetics and biochemical responses of PDs in D. magna and potential mechanisms of action, which may allow for a better assessment of their environmental health risks to aquatic ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Monitoring, Transformation and Ecological Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Aquatic Environments)
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22 pages, 2881 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of Ship-Emitted VOCs and Their Contributions to Urban Atmospheric VOCs in Guangzhou, China
by Xueying Zeng, Liwei Wang, Haining Wu, Chenglei Pei, Hong Ju, Junjie He, Ming Liu, Mei Li, Daiwei Chen, Yongjiang Xu, Wenlong Tang, Jinchi Li and Chunlei Cheng
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060479 - 5 Jun 2025
Viewed by 510
Abstract
With the implementation of China’s low-sulfur fuel policy, the characteristics of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from ship exhausts have changed significantly, and the influence of these emissions on the local atmosphere of port cities needs to be evaluated. In this study, the [...] Read more.
With the implementation of China’s low-sulfur fuel policy, the characteristics of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from ship exhausts have changed significantly, and the influence of these emissions on the local atmosphere of port cities needs to be evaluated. In this study, the characteristics of localized source profiles of ship-emitted VOCs with respect to different ship types, fuel types, and engine operating conditions were analyzed in Guangzhou Port. Oxygenated VOCs (OVOCs) dominated in ferry (91.1%), cargo ship (87.0%), and tugboat (54.4% ± 7.9%) emissions (diesel fuel), while alkanes (56.3% ± 1.6%) and alkenes (36.0% ± 0.9%) were major species in multi-purpose ship (LNG fuel) emissions. These results suggest the dominance of OVOCs in the exhaust emissions of diesel-type ships and the prominent difference in ship-emitted VOCs between diesel and LNG fuel ships, which also influenced the emission characteristics of VOCs from main and auxiliary engines. Based on the measured source profiles, ship emissions contributed 18.2% ± 0.8% (summer), 8.7% ± 1.9% (winter), 6.0% ± 1.1% (spring), and 5.6% ± 1.7% (autumn) to VOCs in the port area, and 7.8% ± 1.5% in July and 5.0% ± 0.5% in September in the urban area. An air mass trajectory analysis revealed that the south wind transported the ship exhaust emissions to the port area and inland urban area, which explained the higher contributions of ship emissions in summer and more ship emissions received in the port area than in the urban area. Therefore, estimating the influence of ship emissions on ambient air quality in port cities requires integrating local ship source profiles, locations, and meteorological conditions. This study provides insights into the ship-emitted VOC characteristics given China’s low-sulfur fuel policy and their differential contributions to urban atmospheric VOCs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)
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18 pages, 3211 KiB  
Article
Combined Effect of Metals, PFAS, Phthalates, and Plasticizers on Cardiovascular Disease Risk
by Doreen Jehu-Appiah and Emmanuel Obeng-Gyasi
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060476 - 5 Jun 2025
Viewed by 708
Abstract
This study assessed the relationship between environmental chemical mixtures—including metals, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), phthalates, and plasticizers—and key cardiovascular health markers using data from the 2013–2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). The combined effects of these pollutants on cardiovascular markers [...] Read more.
This study assessed the relationship between environmental chemical mixtures—including metals, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), phthalates, and plasticizers—and key cardiovascular health markers using data from the 2013–2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). The combined effects of these pollutants on cardiovascular markers were evaluated using Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression (BKMR), a flexible, non-parametric modeling approach that accommodates nonlinear and interactive relationships among exposures. BKMR was applied to assess both the joint and individual associations of the chemical mixture with systolic blood pressure (SBP), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), total cholesterol, and triglycerides. As part of the BKMR analysis, posterior inclusion probabilities (PIPs) were estimated to identify the relative importance of each exposure within the mixture. These results highlighted phthalates as major contributors to LDL, SBP, total cholesterol, HDL, and triglycerides while plasticizers were associated with LDL, SBP, HDL, and triglycerides. Metals and PFAS were most strongly linked to LDL, DBP, total cholesterol, and SBP. The overall mixture effect indicated that cumulative exposures were associated with lower LDL and SBP and elevated DBP, suggesting an increased cardiovascular risk. Triglycerides exhibited a complex quantile-dependent trend, with higher exposures associated with reduced levels. These findings underscore the importance of mixture-based risk assessments that reflect real-world exposure scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)
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22 pages, 2798 KiB  
Article
Effects of Parameter Variations Generated by Pumping on LNAPL Migration in the Aquitard: An Analytical and Experimental Study
by Yue Su, Yong Huang, Huan Shen, Xiaosong Dong, Xiaochang Sun and Zhimin Fu
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060471 - 2 Jun 2025
Viewed by 478
Abstract
The parameter variations in the aquitard have an important influence on the migration laws of contaminants in the aquitard. In order to study the influence of dynamic changes in parameters during pumping on the migration laws of Light Non-aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL) in [...] Read more.
The parameter variations in the aquitard have an important influence on the migration laws of contaminants in the aquitard. In order to study the influence of dynamic changes in parameters during pumping on the migration laws of Light Non-aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL) in the aquitard, the one-dimensional consolidation and groundwater flow equations for the aquitard were employed to derive the governing equations for the migration of LNAPL in the aquitard. A self-designed experimental platform was developed to investigate the effects of the pore water pressure, consolidation deformation, and pumping rate on LNAPL migration during pumping. The laboratory experimental results indicated that during pumping, the migration behavior of LNAPL in the aquitard typically exhibited a trend toward the pumping well and the overlying aquifer. The closer to the pumping well, the greater the change in the pore water pressure, the greater the amount of consolidation deformation, the earlier the state of densification, and the slower the migration rate of LNAPL in the aquitard. The nearer to the bottom of the aquitard, the larger the amount of consolidation deformation in the aquitard and the slower the migration rate of LNAPL in the aquitard. Also, the pumping rate had an important influence on groundwater flow movement and contaminant migration. The characteristics of parameter variations in the aquitard and laws of LNAPL migration during pumping were systematically studied and analyzed; these research results can provide a reference for the prediction and remediation of LNAPL in contaminated sites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity Characterization, Detection and Remediation of Contaminants in Soils and Groundwater 2.0)
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14 pages, 425 KiB  
Review
Clinical Impact of Vaping
by Francesco Petrella, Paola Faverio, Andrea Cara, Enrico Mario Cassina, Lidia Libretti, Sara Lo Torto, Emanuele Pirondini, Federico Raveglia, Francesca Spinelli, Antonio Tuoro, Elisa Perger and Fabrizio Luppi
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060470 - 1 Jun 2025
Viewed by 2517
Abstract
The term ‘vaping’ refers to the use of electronic cigarettes or other devices to inhale a variety of heated and aerosolized substances. Vaping has been promoted as a less harmful and potentially oncogenic alternative to nicotine cigarettes, particularly to help heavy smokers quit. [...] Read more.
The term ‘vaping’ refers to the use of electronic cigarettes or other devices to inhale a variety of heated and aerosolized substances. Vaping has been promoted as a less harmful and potentially oncogenic alternative to nicotine cigarettes, particularly to help heavy smokers quit. While vaping products do not produce the same carcinogenic substances—such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons—generated by the combustion of tobacco, and while their fluids lack tobacco-related carcinogens like nitrosamines, it is now well established that they still generate harmful and potentially oncogenic byproducts. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the potential oncogenic effects of vaping fluids, including direct chemical action, epithelial–mesenchymal transition induction, redox stress, mitochondrial toxicity, and DNA damage. In addition to cancer risk, there have been reports of adverse effects on cardiovascular health, reproductive function, and non-oncologic lung injuries. These include exogenous lipoid pneumonia, diffuse alveolar hemorrhage with proven alveolar injury, and vaping-associated bronchiolitis obliterans. The aim of this review is to examine vaping devices, their potential role in lung carcinogenesis, vaping-associated lung injury, and other clinical implications, including impacts on cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and respiratory diseases, and also pregnancy and fetus health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)
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16 pages, 2379 KiB  
Article
Distribution, Sources, and Health Risk of Short-, Medium- and Long-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins in School-Area Ambient PM1: A Study from the Pearl River Delta, China
by Mo Yang, Xin-Feng Wang, Jing-Wen Huang, Nan-Xiang Jin, Chu Chu, Guo-Feng Huang, Duo-Hong Chen, Min Xie, Yu-Hong Zhai, Yu-Jun Lin, Jun Liu, Li-Zi Lin, Wen-Wen Bao, Zhao-Huan Gui, Pasi I. Jalava, Guang-Hui Dong and Marjut Roponen
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060467 - 31 May 2025
Viewed by 579
Abstract
Background: Only a few studies have reported on chlorinated paraffin (CP) levels, especially long-chain chlorinated paraffins (LCCPs), in submicron particulate matter (PM1) in the outdoor air around primary and secondary schools. Methods: This study examined concentrations of short-chain CPs (SCCPs), medium-chain [...] Read more.
Background: Only a few studies have reported on chlorinated paraffin (CP) levels, especially long-chain chlorinated paraffins (LCCPs), in submicron particulate matter (PM1) in the outdoor air around primary and secondary schools. Methods: This study examined concentrations of short-chain CPs (SCCPs), medium-chain CPs (MCCPs), and LCCPs in PM1 samples from 96 schools across six cities in China’s Pearl River Delta region during the winter (October to December 2018). Results: The median total CP concentration was 34 ng/m3, with median values for SCCP, MCCP, and LCCP of 17.3, 15, and 0.7 ng/m3, respectively. The primary congeners were C13Cl6–8 for SCCPs, C14Cl6–9 for MCCPs, and C18Cl7–10 for LCCPs. The SCCPs and MCCPs largely originated from fugitive dust, whereas the LCCPs were mainly sourced from organic chemical industries. Air masses from the South China Sea contributed most to SCCP and MCCP levels, while those from the east coast accounted for the highest LCCP levels. The concentrations of CP in PM1 were significantly positively correlated with PM1 levels. Conclusions: The exposure risk assessments by age indicated a very low current health risk from PM1-related CP inhalation, although prolonged pollution could raise these risks as CP concentrations in ambient PM may continue to increase. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Air and Health Risks)
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13 pages, 3442 KiB  
Perspective
Addressing the Global Challenge of Nitrous Oxide Misuse Through a Multidisciplinary Approach: Example of the PROTOSIDE Network
by Guillaume Grzych, Remy Diesnis, Thierry Dupré, Jean Paul Niguet, Emeline Gernez, Damien Denimal, Sylvie Deheul, Jean Claude Guichard, Damien Scliffet, Bruno Mégarbane, Isabelle Redonnet-Vernhet, Alexandra Boucher, Anas Bennis, Laurent Karila, Etienne Cavalier, Benjamin Rolland, Christophe Riou, Cécile Bossaert and Anthony Chauvin
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060466 - 31 May 2025
Viewed by 856
Abstract
Nitrous oxide (N2O) was originally used for medical and industrial purposes, but its recreational use has dramatically increased, raising a major global public health concern. Chronic inhalation is associated with neurological, metabolic, and psychiatric complications, as well as addiction. To address [...] Read more.
Nitrous oxide (N2O) was originally used for medical and industrial purposes, but its recreational use has dramatically increased, raising a major global public health concern. Chronic inhalation is associated with neurological, metabolic, and psychiatric complications, as well as addiction. To address these challenges, the PROTOSIDE network was developed to provide a multidisciplinary approach to management and prevention. This initiative relies on competence centers integrating specialists in emergency medicine, neurology, clinical biochemistry, and addiction medicine. PROTOSIDE aims to standardize diagnostic protocols, optimize patient care pathways, and strengthen addictovigilance. A strong emphasis is placed on prevention, including awareness campaigns and collaboration with healthcare professionals and educators. By facilitating access to advanced biochemical analyses (homocysteine, methylmalonic acid) and promoting international guidelines, PROTOSIDE represents an innovative model for a global response to N2O misuse. This integrated approach enhances clinical management, reduces complications, and harmonizes public health strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Novel Methods in Toxicology Research)
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15 pages, 1242 KiB  
Article
Efficient Adsorption of Lead on Hydro-Pyrochar Synthesized by Two-Step Conversion of Corn Cob in Magnesium Chloride Medium
by Marija Simić, Jelena Petrović, Marija Koprivica, Marija Ercegović, Jelena Dimitrijević, Nikola S. Vuković and Núria Fiol
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060459 - 30 May 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 580
Abstract
This study used widely available waste biomass, corn cob (CC), to remove Pb ions from aqueous solutions. A two-step conversion of this material was carried out to improve its adsorption characteristics. Firstly, CC was prepared by hydrothermal carbonization; afterward, the obtained hydrochar was [...] Read more.
This study used widely available waste biomass, corn cob (CC), to remove Pb ions from aqueous solutions. A two-step conversion of this material was carried out to improve its adsorption characteristics. Firstly, CC was prepared by hydrothermal carbonization; afterward, the obtained hydrochar was doped by MgCl2 and pyrolyzed. The synthesized hydro-pyrochar (HCC-Mg) was used for adsorption experiments in a batch system. The surface and structural properties of HCC-Mg were characterized by SEM-EDX and FTIR analysis before and after Pb adsorption. Kinetic and isotherm models were applied to the experimental results. It was confirmed that Pb adsorption on HCC-Mg occurred rapidly, with a maximum adsorption capacity of 87.08 mg/g. The pseudo-second-order model best described the adsorption process, while the best fit of the experimental data was observed with the Sips isotherm model. The results of this study showed that the capacity of the synthesized HCC-Mg material had increased more than 14 times compared with raw CC. In addition, the synthesized material had the potential to be reused for at least five cycles with minimal loss of adsorption capacity and efficiency. Moreover, the results confirmed that HCC-Mg can be used as an efficient, sustainable adsorbent of Pb from polluted water. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials for Pollutant Immobilization and Removal in Soil and Water)
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14 pages, 5155 KiB  
Article
Converting Waste into Treasure: Efficient Adsorption of Cr(VI) Using Iron-Modified Rice Straw Biochar
by Hang Liu, Runlin Yao, Mingling Yu, Zongda Ye, Yingrui Lu, Xiaolong Yu, Jin Tang and Jianteng Sun
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060458 - 30 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 551
Abstract
Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is of significant interest in the environmental field due to its high toxicity. Biochar is commonly used as an adsorbent for Cr(VI) removal from wastewater. However, its lower removal efficiency remains a persistent challenge. This study develops an iron-modified rice [...] Read more.
Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is of significant interest in the environmental field due to its high toxicity. Biochar is commonly used as an adsorbent for Cr(VI) removal from wastewater. However, its lower removal efficiency remains a persistent challenge. This study develops an iron-modified rice straw biochar through a simple precipitation and pyrolysis method and applies it for Cr(VI) removal in wastewater, which could convert waste into treasure and improve the adsorption performance of adsorbent. In the adsorption experiments, the results revealed that the adsorption efficiency of Cr(VI) reached 95.54% within 480 min (conditions: adsorbent dosage 2.67 g/L, pH 2.5, temperature 25 ± 2 °C). The Langmuir isotherm model was more suitable to describe the adsorption behavior of Cr(VI) by Fe-BC, and the fitted adsorption capacity achieved 10.03 mg/g. The experimental process was better described by the pseudo-second-order kinetic model, indicating that the adsorption process chemical adsorption was the rate-limiting step. The thermodynamic experiments revealed that the adsorption process of Cr(VI) by Fe-BC was spontaneous and endothermic. Column experiments demonstrated that a lower flow speed was beneficial to adsorption performance. Mechanistic studies highlighted the synergistic roles of electrostatic attraction, ion exchange, and reduction in Cr(VI) removal. These findings provide novel perspectives and innovative approaches for the development and application of adsorbents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)
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17 pages, 3651 KiB  
Article
Polarization of THP-1-Derived Human M0 to M1 Macrophages Exposed to Flavored E-Liquids
by Raivat Shah, Emily D. Luo, Carly A. Shaffer, Maya Tabakha, Sophie Tomov, Siara H. Minton, Mikaela K. Brown, Dominic L. Palazzolo and Giancarlo A. Cuadra
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 451; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060451 - 29 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1204
Abstract
Electronic cigarettes (ECIGs) are widely used but their effects on the immune system need to be further investigated. Macrophages are white blood cells central to the immune response. Using THP-1-derived M0 macrophages, this study aims to determine the effects of ECIG liquids (E-liquids) [...] Read more.
Electronic cigarettes (ECIGs) are widely used but their effects on the immune system need to be further investigated. Macrophages are white blood cells central to the immune response. Using THP-1-derived M0 macrophages, this study aims to determine the effects of ECIG liquids (E-liquids) on the polarization of M0 to the pro-inflammatory M1 macrophage subtype. THP-1 cells were cultured and differentiated to M0 macrophages using RPMI media. E-liquids ± cinnamon, menthol, strawberry and tobacco flavors were added to cell cultures at 1% (v/v) during polarization with lipopolysaccharides and interferon γ for 24 to 72 h. Morphology, viability, gene expression and cytokine production were measured using light microscopy, the LDH cytotoxicity assay, qPCR and ELISA, respectively. The results show that cells present little to no LDH activity under any treatments. In addition, cinnamon-flavored E-liquid severely affects morphology (i.e., abolishing pseudopodia formation), gene expression of all genes tested, and cytokine production. Other E-liquid flavors also affect some of these parameters, but to a lesser extent. Our data suggest that E-liquids can affect the polarization from M0 to M1, thus affecting the immune response in ECIG-exposed tissues such as the mucosa in the oral cavity and airways, ultimately mitigating the health status. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risk Assessment of Exposure to Emerging Contaminants)
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17 pages, 1752 KiB  
Article
Role of NR1D1 in Bisphenol A-Induced Anxiety-like Behavior and Inflammation in Zebrafish Larvae
by Mingjun Wu, Pinyi Chen, Yuting Wang, Xinwei Wang, Yuqianrui Bao, Liqiao Fan, Yuxiao Rao, Xiaoyao Song and Jie Zhang
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060449 - 28 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 556
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widespread environmental endocrine disruptor with significant neurodevelopmental and behavioral risks. The present study explored the role of the circadian clock protein NR1D1 in mediating BPA-induced anxiety-like behavior and brain inflammation early in life. Zebrafish embryos exposed to BPA [...] Read more.
Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widespread environmental endocrine disruptor with significant neurodevelopmental and behavioral risks. The present study explored the role of the circadian clock protein NR1D1 in mediating BPA-induced anxiety-like behavior and brain inflammation early in life. Zebrafish embryos exposed to BPA exhibited anxiety-like behavior characterized by altered motor activity patterns. Notably, BPA exposure suppressed the expression of the circadian clock gene nr1d1, accompanied by increased transcriptional and protein levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α. These changes created a pro-inflammatory microenvironment that disrupted dopamine system homeostasis, contributing to the observed behavioral abnormalities. Activation of NR1D1 using GSK effectively reversed BPA-induced inflammatory responses and restored normal dopamine levels and behavioral phenotypes. These findings highlight NR1D1 as a critical regulator linking circadian rhythm disruption, neuroinflammation, and dopaminergic dysfunction to anxiety-like behavior. This study provides novel insights into the mechanisms underlying BPA-induced neurotoxicity and identifies NR1D1 as a potential therapeutic target for mitigating the adverse effects of early-life BPA exposure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Environmental Factors)
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14 pages, 4702 KiB  
Article
Vegan Red: A Safer Alternative to Synthetic Food Dyes?
by Chiara Fogliano, Alessandra La Pietra, Chiara Maria Motta, Teresa Mobilio, Teresa Capriello, Margherita Sasso, Bice Avallone and Ida Ferrandino
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 447; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060447 - 28 May 2025
Viewed by 548
Abstract
Food colourants are widely used additives classified as either synthetic or natural. In recent years, consumers have increasingly favoured natural options, considering them safer and potentially beneficial due to their nutritional properties. This study examined the effects of a natural food colourant, commercially [...] Read more.
Food colourants are widely used additives classified as either synthetic or natural. In recent years, consumers have increasingly favoured natural options, considering them safer and potentially beneficial due to their nutritional properties. This study examined the effects of a natural food colourant, commercially known as Vegan Red (RVEG), on zebrafish embryonic development. Its impact was compared with cochineal red E120, of animal origin, and the synthetic dye E124, which are associated with hyperactivity in children and allergies. Shield stage embryos were exposed for 72 h and then examined using a multidisciplinary approach to assess the effects on conventional toxicity endpoints, such as survival, hatching rate, heart rate, genotoxicity, and behavioural interferences, including the impact on muscle ultrastructure. The results demonstrated that RVEG, as well as E120, do not affect hatching, heart rate, and motility parameters. However, RVEG moderately alters skeletal muscle organisation and, more relevant, the expression of the gfap, chchd2, and notch1a genes. Based on standard toxicity parameters, the findings indicated that RVEG is less toxic than E124 and E120, but that the alterations induced in gene expression and muscle anatomy raise safety concerns. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Pollutants on Aquatic Ecosystems and Food Safety)
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18 pages, 2949 KiB  
Article
Ozone Aggravated the Toxicity of Fine Particulate Matter by Impairing Membrane Stability and Facilitating Particle Internalization
by Jing He, Tong Wang, Han Li, Yemian Zhou, Yun Liu and An Xu
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 446; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060446 - 28 May 2025
Viewed by 445
Abstract
The combined pollution of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone (O3) is increasing synergistically on a global scale, posing a serious threat to human health. However, the joint toxicity and the underlying mechanisms associated with co-exposure to PM2.5 [...] Read more.
The combined pollution of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone (O3) is increasing synergistically on a global scale, posing a serious threat to human health. However, the joint toxicity and the underlying mechanisms associated with co-exposure to PM2.5 and O3 remain poorly understood. Through complementary in vivo animal models and in vitro cellular assays, the results demonstrate that although there was no synergistic cytotoxicity effect between PM2.5 and O3, the presence of O3 significantly enhanced the genotoxicity of PM2.5 by inducing severe DNA double-strand breaks. Furthermore, O3 exposure significantly exacerbated the bioaccumulation of PM2.5 by disturbing the cellular membrane integrity, thus leading to synergistic toxicity in bronchial cells and mouse lungs. Astaxanthin (AST) effectively antagonized the adverse effects of PM2.5 and O3 co-exposure by maintaining cell membrane integrity. These findings enhance our understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms induced by co-exposure to PM2.5 and O3, and provide a promising therapeutic strategy for treating respiratory diseases caused by unavoidable exposure to these pollutants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)
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25 pages, 3745 KiB  
Article
Optical Properties and Molecular Composition of Fine Organic Aerosols in Nanjing, China: A Comparison of 2019 and 2023
by Binhuang Zhou, Yu Huang, Liangyu Feng, Zihao Zhang, Haiwei Li, Yun Wu, Jianhuai Ye and Xinlei Ge
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 443; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060443 - 27 May 2025
Viewed by 564
Abstract
Optical properties and chemical composition of atmospheric fine particles (PM2.5) are critical to their environmental and health effects. In this study, we analyzed the organic aerosols (OA) in PM2.5 samples in Nanjing, China, collected during the summer and winter of [...] Read more.
Optical properties and chemical composition of atmospheric fine particles (PM2.5) are critical to their environmental and health effects. In this study, we analyzed the organic aerosols (OA) in PM2.5 samples in Nanjing, China, collected during the summer and winter of 2019 and 2023. Results show a decline in both concentrations and light-absorbing abilities of methanol—soluble organic carbon (MSOC) and water-soluble OC (WSOC) in OA from 2019 to 2023. Due to increased combustion activities, MSOC and WSOC concentrations, and their corresponding mass absorption efficiencies were all higher in winter than in summer. Furthermore, fluorescence indices suggest that OA in Nanjing was influenced by a mix of microbial/biogenic sources. Fluorescent properties of both WSOC and MSOC were dominated by humic-like components but the remaining contribution from protein-like components was more significant in MSOC. The molecular composition of OA did not show a remarkable difference between 2019 and 2023. Overall, CHON compounds were the most abundant species, followed by CHO and CHN compounds, and aliphatic compounds dominated all molecular types except for CHN (in positive mode) and CHON, CHOS (in negative mode). Regarding the OA sources, the numbers of molecules from fossil fuel combustion and biomass burning (BB) were a bit more in 2023 than in 2019, and signal intensities of BB-related molecules were also higher in winter than in summer; the presence of organosulfates indicate the contribution of aqueous-phase oxidation to OA, especially during high relative humidity conditions. At last, correlations between OA molecules and light absorption efficiencies indicate that the key light-absorbing species in winter and summer were likely quite different despite similar chemical compositions, and in summer, CH and CHN compounds were important to light absorption, whereas CHNS compounds became more important in winter. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Source and Components Analysis of Aerosols in Air Pollution)
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17 pages, 1832 KiB  
Article
A Dual Bioassay for Evaluation of Embryotoxicity and Acute Toxicity of Common Solvents and Surfactants in Artemia salina
by Iulia Ioana Olaru, Octavian Tudorel Olaru, Dragos Paul Mihai, Cerasela Elena Gird, Anca Zanfirescu, Rica Boscencu, Emanuela-Alice Luta, Corina Andrei and George Mihai Nitulescu
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060442 - 27 May 2025
Viewed by 594
Abstract
This study evaluated the acute and developmental toxicity of selected hydrotropes, co-solvents, and surfactants commonly used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic formulations, using Artemia salina as a model organism. Two bioassays were employed: a lethality test and a hatching inhibition test. Compounds such as [...] Read more.
This study evaluated the acute and developmental toxicity of selected hydrotropes, co-solvents, and surfactants commonly used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic formulations, using Artemia salina as a model organism. Two bioassays were employed: a lethality test and a hatching inhibition test. Compounds such as sodium lauryl sulfate (LC50 < 0.05%), sodium xylenesulfonate (LC50 = 0.79%), sodium p-toluensulfonate (LC50 = 0.21%), N,N-dimethylbenzamide (LC50 < 0.05%), and N,N-diethylnicotinamide (LC50 = 0.05%) exhibited high toxicity at 48 h, inducing significant mortality and strong inhibition of hatching. Glycerin, propylene glycol, and dimethyl sulfoxide showed low toxicity across all concentrations. Lethal concentration values confirmed the high toxicity of sodium xylenesulfonate and N,N-dimethylbenzamide, with moderate effects observed for other compounds. The hatching inhibition test proved more sensitive than the lethality test, enabling the detection of embryotoxicity and developmental delays. Although more laborious, it provided detailed information into how the tested substances influenced developmental stage progression. Hierarchical clustering analysis grouped the substances based on toxicity patterns and clearly discriminated highly toxic surfactants from low-toxicity solvents. The results demonstrated that combining both bioassays offers a more comprehensive evaluation of toxicity, with the hatching test being particularly useful for identifying early developmental effects not evident in lethality testing alone. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)
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14 pages, 1429 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Exposure to 6-PPD Quinone Inhibits Glutamate Synthesis and Glutamate Receptor Function Associated with Its Toxicity Induction in Caenorhabditis elegans
by Wei Wang, Yunhui Li and Dayong Wang
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060434 - 26 May 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 689
Abstract
6-PPD quinone (6-PPDQ) is widely distributed in environments. In Caenorhabditis elegans, we first examined the effects of 6-PPDQ on glutamate synthesis and receptor function by analyzing glutamate content, related gene expression, and phenotypes after RNAi of these genes. Moreover, we performed glutamate [...] Read more.
6-PPD quinone (6-PPDQ) is widely distributed in environments. In Caenorhabditis elegans, we first examined the effects of 6-PPDQ on glutamate synthesis and receptor function by analyzing glutamate content, related gene expression, and phenotypes after RNAi of these genes. Moreover, we performed glutamate treatment after 6-PPDQ exposure to determine the potential pharmacological effects of glutamate against 6-PPDQ toxicity. After exposure, the glutamate content was reduced by 0.1–10 μg/L 6-PPDQ, which was due to decreased expression of W07E1.1, glna-1/2/3, and alh-6 governing glutamate synthesis from α-ketoglutarate, glutamine, and proline. RNAi of W07E1.1, glna-1/2/3, and alh-6 decreased glutamate content in 6-PPDQ-exposed nematodes, and caused susceptibility to 6-PPDQ toxicity. Among glutamate transporter genes, glt-1 expression was decreased by 0.1–10 μg/L 6-PPDQ. Moreover, 0.1–10 μg/L 6-PPDQ decreased glutamate receptor genes (glr-1, glr-2, and glr-4), and their expression was decreased by RNAi of W07E1.1, glna-1/2/3, alh-6, and glt-1. RNAi of these receptor genes resulted in susceptibility to 6-PPDQ toxicity, and daf-7, jnk-1, and dbl-1 were identified as targets of neuronal glr-1, glr-2, and glr-4. Furthermore, 5 mM glutamate suppressed 6-PPDQ toxicity and increased expression of glr-1, glr-2, and glr-4. Our results demonstrated the risk of 6-PPDQ exposure in disrupting glutamate synthesis and affecting function of glutamate receptors, which was related to 6-PPDQ toxicity induction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmacological Intervention Against Toxicity of Environmental Pollutants and Stresses)
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40 pages, 5029 KiB  
Review
Microplastics as Emerging Contaminants and Human Health: Exploring Functional Nutrition in Gastric–Colon–Brain Axis Cancer
by Maria Scuto, Cinzia Maria Grazia Lombardo, Bruna Lo Sasso, Eleonora Di Fatta, Raffaele Ferri and Angela Trovato Salinaro
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 438; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060438 - 26 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1772
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs), emerging contaminants of significant global concern, have a substantially increased environmental impact due to their biological persistence and accumulation in the body. Exposure to MPs has been associated with oxidative stress, systemic inflammation, and cellular dysfunction, notably affecting critical tissues such [...] Read more.
Microplastics (MPs), emerging contaminants of significant global concern, have a substantially increased environmental impact due to their biological persistence and accumulation in the body. Exposure to MPs has been associated with oxidative stress, systemic inflammation, and cellular dysfunction, notably affecting critical tissues such as the stomach, colon, and brain. This review explores the correlation between MPs and cancer risk along the gastric–colon–brain axis, identifying the signaling pathways altered by MP exposure. Furthermore, it highlights the role of functional nutrition and bioactive flavonoids—including chlorogenic acid, coumaric acid, and naringin—as well as the use of highly bioavailable combined polyphenol nanoparticles as potential detoxifying agents. Functional nutrients are effective in enhancing cellular resilience against reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and MP-induced toxicity, offering protective effects at the gastric, intestinal, and brain barriers. Activation of the Nrf2 pathway by bioactive compounds promotes the expression of detoxifying enzymes, suggesting a promising nutritional strategy to mitigate MP-related damage. This review underscores how functional nutrition may represent a viable therapeutic approach to reduce the harmful effects of MP exposure. The integration of advanced technologies—such as microfluidic systems, organ-on-a-chip platforms, and machine learning—and the identification of key molecular targets lay the foundation for developing preventive and personalized medicine strategies aimed at lowering the risk of environmentally induced carcinogenesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)
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14 pages, 2408 KiB  
Article
Comprehensive Risk Evaluation of Perfluoroalkyl Substance Pollution in Urban Riverine Systems: Ecotoxicological and Human Health Perspectives
by Ferlian Vida Satriaji, Cat Tuong Le Tong, Nelly Marlina, Yan Lin, Nguyen Duy Dat, Ha Manh Bui, Yoshifumi Horie and Jheng-Jie Jiang
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060435 - 26 May 2025
Viewed by 670
Abstract
This study investigated the spatiotemporal distribution of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the Daku River, Taoyuan, with a particular focus on source apportionment and associated ecological and human health risks. The total PFAS concentrations ranged from below the detection limits to 185 ng/L, with [...] Read more.
This study investigated the spatiotemporal distribution of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the Daku River, Taoyuan, with a particular focus on source apportionment and associated ecological and human health risks. The total PFAS concentrations ranged from below the detection limits to 185 ng/L, with perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) emerging as the predominant compound, followed by perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS). Elevated PFAS levels were observed downstream of the confluence between the Daku River and Litouzhou ditch, suggesting contributions from industrial activities. Principal component analysis (PCA) and positive matrix factorization (PMF) were employed to identify important components and factors that explain different compounds. Factor 1 (dominated by PFUnA) was attributed to sources such as food packaging and textiles. Factor 2 (PFBS, PFHxS, PFOS) originated from agricultural inputs and wastewater discharges linked to the semiconductor and photonics industries. Factor 3 (PFOA, PFNA, PFDA) was primarily associated with fluoropolymer manufacturing, electronics, chemical engineering, machinery, and coating production. Ecological risk assessments showed no significant threats (RQ < 0.1) for PFBS, PFPA, PFNA, PFOS, and PFDA. Human health risk evaluations based on the Health Risk Index (HRI < 1), likewise, indicated negligible risk from crop and vegetable consumption in the Daku River area. These findings underscore the importance of continued monitoring and targeted pollution management strategies to safeguard environmental quality and public health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Exposure to per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs): Toxicity, Health Effects, and Mitigation)
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22 pages, 3983 KiB  
Review
Occurrence and Toxicity Mechanisms of Perfluorononanoic Acid, Perfluorodecanoic Acid, and Perfluoroundecanoic Acid in Fish: A Review
by Emma Ivantsova, Amany Sultan and Christopher J. Martyniuk
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060436 - 26 May 2025
Viewed by 808
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are used in consumer products and manufacturing. Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) are long-chain PFAS composed of 9, 10, and 11 carbons, respectively, which exert sublethal toxicity to aquatic species. Here, we review [...] Read more.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are used in consumer products and manufacturing. Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) are long-chain PFAS composed of 9, 10, and 11 carbons, respectively, which exert sublethal toxicity to aquatic species. Here, we review the data regarding the environmental fate and ecotoxicology of these understudied long-chain PFAS in fish. The objectives of this study were to (1) compile the literature to compare physiological or molecular signaling pathways disrupted by PFNA, PFDA, or PFUnDA; and (2) uncover potential biomarkers and pathways of toxicity of longer-chain PFAS using gene ontology computational approaches to shed light on their mechanism of action. Studies show that PFAS have a range of effects on fish, including developmental issues, changes in gene expression, and behavioral modifications. Based on our review, PFNA has been studied more frequently in fish compared to PFDA and PFUnDA; however, longer-chained PFAS are proposed to pose greater toxicity. Based on the computational approach, prominent pathways affected by PFNA include insulin signaling [“Insulin -> CEBPA/CTNNB/FOXA/FOXO”, “Insulin -> STAT Expression Targets”], immune system signaling [“TNF -> STAT Expression Targets”, “IL6 Expression Targets”, and “IL2 Expression Targets”], and growth hormone/prolactin signaling [“GH1/PRLR Expression Targets”, “PRL/GHR -> STAT Expression Targets”, “PRL/PRLR Expression Targets”]. Several transcripts related to cholesterol metabolism were also affected by PFNA. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the distribution, fate, and ecotoxicology of PFNA, PFDA, and PFUnDA in teleost fish, highlighting potential physiological and molecular responses that could aid in assessing long-chain PFAS toxicity in future studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)
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23 pages, 829 KiB  
Article
Bisphenols, Toxic Elements, and Potentially Toxic Elements in Ready-to-Eat Fish and Meat Foods and Their Associated Risks for Human Health
by Federica Litrenta, Vincenzo Nava, Angela Giorgia Potortì, Vincenzo Lo Turco, Benedetta Sgrò and Giuseppa Di Bella
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060433 - 25 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 560
Abstract
In this study, simultaneous exposure to bisphenols and toxic and potentially toxic elements from the consumption of ready-to-eat foods was assessed. In total, 120 different ready-to-eat foods purchased in different Sicilian supermarkets and online shops were analysed. BPA was detected in most of [...] Read more.
In this study, simultaneous exposure to bisphenols and toxic and potentially toxic elements from the consumption of ready-to-eat foods was assessed. In total, 120 different ready-to-eat foods purchased in different Sicilian supermarkets and online shops were analysed. BPA was detected in most of the analysed foods. Statistical analysis was performed, differentiating the samples according to geographical origin and packaging type. Good separation between European and non-European samples could be observed, with the former being characterised by lower levels of Cd and Pb, while the latter showed the highest concentrations of Pb and Cd, followed by Mn and Fe. The calculated estimated weekly intake (EWI) was well below the intake levels recommended by regulatory agencies, indicating that ready-to-eat foods can be safely consumed at expected dietary levels. However, the recently established tolerable daily intake (TDI) for BPA increases the risk quotient values to >1, indicating a risk to the consumer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)
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23 pages, 2145 KiB  
Article
Metal Exposure, Bioaccumulation, and Toxicity Assessment in Sediments from the St. Lawrence River Before and After Remediation Using a Resuspension Technique
by Masoumeh Javid, Catherine N. Mulligan, Marie Lefranc and Maikel Rosabal Rodriguez
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060432 - 25 May 2025
Viewed by 540
Abstract
This study, using Hyalella azteca and Chironomus riparius, evaluated the effects of exposure to heavy metal-contaminated sediments collected from the study area under three conditions: before remediation, after remediation, and suspended particulate matter (SPM). The selected toxicity tests allowed for the evaluation [...] Read more.
This study, using Hyalella azteca and Chironomus riparius, evaluated the effects of exposure to heavy metal-contaminated sediments collected from the study area under three conditions: before remediation, after remediation, and suspended particulate matter (SPM). The selected toxicity tests allowed for the evaluation of biological responses across varying concentrations of heavy metals. Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences in survival or growth between sediment-exposed organisms and controls for either species. In addition, bioaccumulation of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, and Pb in both organisms was assessed and compared among the sediment conditions and the control. No statistically significant differences in tissue metal concentrations were found between organisms exposed to sediments from the study area and those in control conditions. Sequential extraction analysis indicated that a substantial proportion of metals in the sediments were bound in stable, non-bioavailable forms. These findings are consistent with the observed biological responses, as low levels of bioavailable metals corresponded with the absence of toxic effects. Together, the data confirm that the sediments, regardless of remediation stage or particle fraction, posed no significant biological risk under the conditions tested. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Metals and Radioactive Substances)
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25 pages, 2388 KiB  
Article
PCBs in Chinstrap Penguins from Deception Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica)
by Miguel Motas, Silvia Jerez-Rodríguez, José Manuel Veiga-del-Baño, Juan José Ramos, José Oliva, Miguel Ángel Cámara, Pedro Andreo-Martínez and Simonetta Corsolini
Toxics 2025, 13(6), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060430 - 24 May 2025
Viewed by 1064
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica) and krill (Euphausia superba) from Deception Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica) to provide additional data of the PCB presence in [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica) and krill (Euphausia superba) from Deception Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica) to provide additional data of the PCB presence in Antarctica. To this end, 34 samples of different tissues corresponding to four adult specimens and six chicks, and krill from the area were studied. The selected samples were analyzed for the determination of 27 congeners of PCBs by gas chromatography. Adult specimens accumulated PCBs mainly in the liver (33%, 1330.82 ± 733.69 pg·g−1 wet weight, w.w.) and muscle (25%, 1029.73 ± 823.4 pg·g−1 w.w.), whereas the brain showed the highest levels in chicks (36%, 1215.83 ± 955.19 pg·g−1 w.w.). Regarding krill, our results were five to eight times lower than the levels found in krill from King George Island and from the Ross Sea. Further, a distribution analysis of PCBs in penguins according to Regulation 2013/39/UE and Commission Regulation (EU) No 277/2012 was also performed, and PCBs were categorized into three groups (dioxin-like-mono-ortho, non-dioxin-like-indicators, and others-non-dioxin-like). The data indicate that the content of the other group was generally higher than that of the other two PCB groups for both adults and chicks. Notably, the liver consistently exhibited the highest proportion of the other group. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomonitoring of Toxic Elements and Emerging Pollutants)
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12 pages, 661 KiB  
Article
Genotoxicity and Cytotoxicity Assessment of Volatile Organic Compounds in Pathology Professionals Through the Buccal Micronuclei Assay
by Fátima Baptista, Patrícia V. Garcia, Armindo S. Rodrigues and Carina Ladeira
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050411 - 19 May 2025
Viewed by 644
Abstract
In pathology laboratories, several volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are used, such as formaldehyde, ethanol, and xylene. These substances are recognized as genotoxic and cytotoxic, which is why their handling poses risks to human health. The buccal micronucleus (MN) cytome assay is a non-invasive, [...] Read more.
In pathology laboratories, several volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are used, such as formaldehyde, ethanol, and xylene. These substances are recognized as genotoxic and cytotoxic, which is why their handling poses risks to human health. The buccal micronucleus (MN) cytome assay is a non-invasive, useful, and simple method to detect these effects in exposed individuals. The aim of the study was to evaluate the risk of genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of VOCs in pathology professionals of S. Miguel Island, Azores, Portugal. The study comprised two groups: exposed workers (n = 21) from the three laboratories of S. Miguel, and a reference group (n = 50), randomly chosen from other hospital services without known exposure to VOCs. The exfoliated buccal cells were auto-sampled by all the participants using a cytobrush. The samples were processed in ThinPrep®, stained with modified Feulgen with Fast Green, and visualized for MN and other nuclear anomalies (ONAs), such as karyorrhexis, pyknotic, and karyolytic cells. Results showed that VOCs have a predictive significance for MN frequency, leading to the conclusion that their exposure is an increased risk factor for the health of these professionals, approximately four times greater than in the control group. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental and Occupational Exposure to Chemical Agents and Health Challenges: 2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 1833 KiB  
Article
Subcellular Partitioning of Trace Elements Is Related to Metal Ecotoxicological Classes in Livers of Fish (Esox lucius; Coregonus clupeaformis) from the Yellowknife Area (Northwest Territories, Canada)
by Aymeric Rolland, Mike Palmer, John Chételat, Marc Amyot and Maikel Rosabal
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050410 - 19 May 2025
Viewed by 567
Abstract
The subcellular partitioning of trace elements (TEs) may depend on their binding preferences, although few field data are available from mining-impacted areas. Northern pike and lake whitefish were collected from different aquatic systems located in the Yellowknife mining area (Northwest Territories, Canada) to [...] Read more.
The subcellular partitioning of trace elements (TEs) may depend on their binding preferences, although few field data are available from mining-impacted areas. Northern pike and lake whitefish were collected from different aquatic systems located in the Yellowknife mining area (Northwest Territories, Canada) to examine the subcellular partitioning of TEs in liver cells. Elements belonging to metal classes based on binding affinities were considered: A (Ce, La), borderline (As, Pb), and class B (Ag, Cd). Measurements in the metal-detoxified fractions (granule-like structures and heat-stable proteins and peptides) and in the putative metal-sensitive fractions (heat-denatured proteins, mitochondria and microsomes, and lysosomes) revealed marked differences among metal classes. In both fish species, Cd and Ag accumulated more as detoxified forms (higher than 50%, likely bound to metallothionein-like proteins) than La and Ce (not more than 20%). The two borderline TEs (As and Pb) showed an intermediate behavior between classes A and B. Similar proportions were found in the “sensitive” subcellular fractions for all TEs, where quantitative ion character-activity relationships (QICARs) indicated the covalent index and electronegativity as predictors of the TE contribution in this compartment. This study supports the use of classes of metals to predict the toxicological risk of data-poor metals in mining areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding the Trafficking of Toxic Metal(loid)s within Cells)
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46 pages, 1292 KiB  
Review
Genotoxicity of Coffee, Coffee By-Products, and Coffee Bioactive Compounds: Contradictory Evidence from In Vitro Studies
by Maryam Monazzah and Dirk W. Lachenmeier
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050409 - 18 May 2025
Viewed by 1092
Abstract
Coffee and coffee by-products, such as coffee cherries, coffee flowers, coffee leaves, green beans, roasted coffee, instant coffee, spent coffee grounds, and silverskin, contain a complex mixture of bioactive compounds that may exhibit both genotoxic and antimutagenic effects. This article evaluates in vitro [...] Read more.
Coffee and coffee by-products, such as coffee cherries, coffee flowers, coffee leaves, green beans, roasted coffee, instant coffee, spent coffee grounds, and silverskin, contain a complex mixture of bioactive compounds that may exhibit both genotoxic and antimutagenic effects. This article evaluates in vitro studies on the genotoxic potential of coffee and coffee by-products, with a focus on different preparation methods, roasting processes, and key chemical constituents. Furthermore, given the growing interest in utilizing coffee by-products for novel food applications, this review sought to identify knowledge gaps regarding their safety. The impact of metabolic activation, particularly the role of enzymatic detoxification and bioactivation, was examined to better understand the effects on genetic material. The findings suggest that while certain compounds in coffee can induce DNA damage under specific conditions, the overall evidence does not indicate a significant genotoxic risk to consumers. However, further studies, particularly in vivo and human studies, appear necessary to ensure the requirements of novel food applications for some coffee by-products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)
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20 pages, 2872 KiB  
Review
Challenges in Toxicological Risk Assessment of Environmental Cadmium Exposure
by Soisungwan Satarug
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050404 - 16 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 722
Abstract
Dietary exposure to a high dose of cadmium (Cd) ≥ 100 µg/day for at least 50 years or a lifetime intake of Cd ≥ 1 g can cause severe damage to the kidneys and bones. Alarmingly, however, exposure to a dose of Cd [...] Read more.
Dietary exposure to a high dose of cadmium (Cd) ≥ 100 µg/day for at least 50 years or a lifetime intake of Cd ≥ 1 g can cause severe damage to the kidneys and bones. Alarmingly, however, exposure to a dose of Cd between 10 and 15 µg/day and excretion of Cd at a rate below 0.5 µg/g creatinine have been associated with an increased risk of diseases with a high prevalence worldwide, such as chronic kidney disease (CKD), fragile bones, diabetes, and cancer. These findings have cast considerable doubt on a “tolerable” Cd exposure level of 58 µg/day for a 70 kg person, while questioning the threshold level for the Cd excretion rate of 5.24 µg/g creatinine. The present review addresses many unmet challenges in a threshold-based risk assessment for Cd. Special emphasis is given to the benchmark dose (BMD) methodology to estimate the Cd exposure limit that aligns with a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL). Cd exposure limits estimated from conventional dosing experiments and human data are highlighted. The results of the BMDL modeling of the relationship between Cd excretion and various indicators of its effects on kidneys are summarized. It is recommended that exposure guidelines for Cd should employ the most recent scientific research data, dose–response curves constructed from an unbiased exposure indicator, and clinically relevant adverse effects such as proteinuria, albuminuria, and a decrease in the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). These are signs of developing CKD and its progression to the end stage, when dialysis or a kidney transplant is required for survival. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occupational and Environmental Exposures, Diseases and Epidemiology: From Basic Research to Human Health)
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13 pages, 1299 KiB  
Article
Dietary Exposure to Food Contaminants of Pregnant Women in Northern Spain and Possible Effects on Fetal Anthropometric Parameters
by Daniel Hinojosa-Nogueira, José Ramón Bahamonde, Marta Aguilera-Nieto, Beatriz Navajas-Porras, Verónica González-Vigil, José Ángel Rufián-Henares and Silvia Pastoriza de la Cueva
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050399 - 16 May 2025
Viewed by 600
Abstract
A considerable number of organizations are working to improve food safety, with particular attention to vulnerable groups such as pregnant women due to the important influence of diet on fetal development. The aim of this study was to evaluate exposure to 11 food [...] Read more.
A considerable number of organizations are working to improve food safety, with particular attention to vulnerable groups such as pregnant women due to the important influence of diet on fetal development. The aim of this study was to evaluate exposure to 11 food processing contaminants and their effects on maternal and fetal health. Online questionnaires during the first and third trimesters were used to analyze the intake and exposure to different food contaminants, estimated from the contaminants food database “CONT11”, in 84 pregnant women in Oviedo (Spain) and their influence on newborn anthropometric data. Exposure to certain contaminants, such as acrylamide or total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, was found to have a significant impact on maternal and fetal health, particularly in relation to birth weight or head circumference. During the third trimester, pregnant women reported dietary improvement and reduced exposure to dietary contaminants. Identifying the foods and food groups that contribute most to exposure and the potential for health professionals will facilitate the development of basic exposure reduction strategies. This study is one of the few to assess the exposure of pregnant women to a wide range of contaminants and their impact on fetal health, providing a baseline for future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risk Evaluation of Hazardous Substances in Food)
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