Environmental Methamphetamine Exposures and Health Effects in 25 Case Studies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. General
2.2. Identification of Opportunistic Case Studies
2.3. Characterisation of Exposure
2.3.1. Environmental Contamination Levels
2.3.2. Hair Analysis
2.4. Characterisation of Health Effects
2.4.1. Interview Data
- Participants—age, gender, hair colour, whether the hair was dyed, use of amphetamine-type stimulants, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) drugs (particularly relevant for children);
- Housing situation—owning or renting, duration of time at the property, how much time is spent in the property, including whether the participant was the primary cleaner in the home, if they had undertaken renovations in the home, or whether children undertake a lot of floor play;
- Exposure situation—how the participant or family came to be living in the property and how they found out that the property was contaminated. Information about whether the property may have been contaminated from manufacture or use was also obtained;
- Health information—identification of pre-existing conditions, description of health issues that occurred while living in the property, with medical records or school attendance plus medical records provided to support the information provided, and information on whether the health effects persisted when out of the property. Where the health problems had resolved, questions relating to how long the health effects persisted after moving out of the home were also included. The collection of health information focused on health effects that occurred within the property that were different from or worse than health issues experienced prior to living in the property. As the health effects being documented were self-reported, it was considered important to document health effects specifically related to the time spent in the property. For some case studies, children had spent their whole lives living at the contaminated property. For these participants, the health information obtained from parents related to their overall health. In some cases, health effects related to the property could be identified more clearly as these did not persist whenever the participant was out of the property.
2.4.2. Behavioural Assessment
3. Results
3.1. Opportunistic Case Studies
3.2. Property Details
3.3. Data from Individual Participants
4. Discussion
4.1. Disclosure
4.2. Health Effects
4.3. Hair Analysis
4.4. Use vs. Manufacture
4.5. Guidelines
4.6. Study Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Case Study | General Location | Type of Property | Ownership | Occupants | Duration of Time in Property | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R | U | H | A | O | T | PH | Adults | Children | ||
CS01 | y | y | y | 2 | 3 | 1.5 years | ||||
CS02 | y | y | y | 1 | 2 | 2 years | ||||
CS03 | y | y | y | 1 | 8 months | |||||
CS04 | y | y | y | 2 | 2 | 5 weeks | ||||
CS05 | y | y | y | y | 2 | 1 | 3 years | |||
CS06 | y | y | y | y | 1 | 7 years | ||||
CS07 | y | y | y | 1 | 1 | 2 years | ||||
CS08 | y | y | y | 2 | 3 | 4 months | ||||
CS09 | y | y | y | 2 | 5 months | |||||
CS10 | y | y | y | y | 1 | 3 years | ||||
CS11 | y | y | y | 1 | 7 months | |||||
CS12 | y | y | y | 2 | 3 | 4.5 months | ||||
CS13 | y | y | y | y | 1 | Regular short visits | ||||
CS14 | y | y | y | 1 | 10 days per fortnight over 2 years | |||||
CS15 | y | y | y | y | 1 | 1 | 3 years | |||
CS16 | y | y | y | 1 | 8 months | |||||
CS17 | y | y | y | 1 | 5 months | |||||
CS18 | y | y | y | 2 | 2 | 8 months | ||||
CS19 | y | y | y | 2 | 2 | 8 years | ||||
CS20 | y | y | y | 2 | 2 years—few days at a time | |||||
CS21 | y | y | y | 1 | 4 weeks | |||||
CS22 | y | y | y | 2 | 2 | 10 years | ||||
CS23 | y | y | y | 2 | 2 | 6 years | ||||
CS24 | y | y | y | 1 | 3 | 6 weeks | ||||
CS25 | y | y | y | y | 1 | 13 months | ||||
N = | 3:22 | 20:5 | 7 | 18 | 6 | 34:29 |
Case Study | Activity Likely to Have Resulted in Contamination | Contamination Status of Methamphetamine, Based on Wipe Sample Results (µg/100 cm2) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Manufacture | Use | Minimum | Maximum | Average * | |
CS01 | y (police seized) | 11 | 107 | 30.7 | |
CS02 | y | <0.02 | 42 | 2.2 | |
CS03 | y | 0.01 | >10 | NA | |
CS04 | y, suspected | 7.3 | 8.3 | 7.8 | |
CS05 | y | <0.03 | 20.7 | 2.8 | |
CS06 | y | <0.03 | 1.32 | 0.31 | |
CS07 | y | 0.02 | 4.4 | 0.96 | |
CS08 | y | 0.1 | 5.7 | 2.2 | |
CS09 | potential | potential | 0.12 | 53 | 3.1 |
CS10 | y, suspected | 0.69 | >100 | 25 | |
CS11 | potential | potential | 0.19 | 42.9 | 7.8 |
CS12 | potential | potential | 3.5 | 7.8 | 5.6 |
CS13 | y | <0.02 | 20 | 2 | |
CS14 | y | NA | NA | NA | |
CS15 | y | <0.02 | 0.13 | 0.06 | |
CS16 | y | 4.1 | 107 | 49 | |
CS17 | potential | y | 5.34 | 45.09 | 24 |
CS18 | y | 0.32 | 9.9 | 4.3 | |
CS19 | y | <0.02 | 245 | 18.8 | |
CS20 | y | 0.05 | 31 | 2.3 | |
CS21 | y | <0.02 | 2 | 0.34 | |
CS22 | potential | potential | 0.38 | 250 | 18 |
CS23 | y | 0.18 | 125 | 14.7 | |
CS24 | potential | potential | 0.03 | 25 | 6.6 |
CS25 | potential | potential | <0.02 | 3.5 | 1.2 |
Manufactured—Yes | 7 | ||||
Manufactured—Suspected | 2 | ||||
Manufactured—Potential | 7 | ||||
Manufactured—No | 10 | ||||
Use—Yes | 11 | ||||
Use—Potential | 6 | ||||
Use—No | 8 | ||||
Manufactured (Potential) + Use | 1 | ||||
Manufactured (Potential) + Use (Potential) | 6 |
Health Effect Reported | Number of Participants Reporting Health Effect as Number (% All Participants) | Resolution of Health Effects Once Out of the Property | |
---|---|---|---|
Children and Adolescents [n = 29] | Adults, 21 Years and Older [n = 34] | ||
Skin (rashes, irritation) | 16 (55%) | 19 (56%) | Yes—within days to weeks |
Eyes (sore, watering) | 16 (55%) | 20 (59%) | Yes—within hours to days |
Respiratory—total | 18 (62%) | 18 (53%) | |
- Persistent cough | 16 (55%) | 16 (47%) | Yes—within days to weeks |
- Asthma or asthma-like symptoms | 10 (34%) | 10 (29%) | Yes—within days to weeks |
Immune (chronic or constant infections—respiratory or sinus) | 7 (24%) | 11 (32%) | Yes—within weeks |
Headache | 2 (7%) | 16 (47%) | Yes—within days to weeks |
Sleep—total | 21 (72%) | 23 (68%) | |
- Difficulty sleeping | 18 (62%) | 21 (62%) | Yes—within days to weeks |
- Unusual dreams | 12 (41%) | 10 (29%) | Yes—within days to weeks |
Behavioural and cognitive—total | 23 (79%) | 22 (65%) | Most resolved within a month to a year. For 3 participants, depression continued for a longer time, likely due to prolonged issues in dealing with the contaminated property. In addition, for some parents there is ongoing anxiety about their children’s health in the long term. |
- Fatigue or tiredness | 8 (28%) | 13 (38%) | |
- Increased aggression or irritability | 16 (55%) | 5 (15%) | |
- Moodiness, depression, anxiety | 5 (17%) | 13 (38%) | |
- Vagueness or not thinking clearly | 5 (17%) | 10 (29%) | |
- Memory issues | 0 | 6 (18%) | |
Exacerbation of pre-existing conditions | 2 (7%) | 7 (21%) | Yes—within months |
Sample Code * | Age (Years) | Hair Analysis Results (pg/mg) | Average Level of MA Contamination in Property ** (µg/100 cm2) | Likely Source of Contamination | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hair Matrix | Hair Wash | ||||||
MA | AMP | MA | AMP | ||||
CS01F40 | 40 | 17 | <5 | 8 | <5 | 30.7 | M |
CS01M38 | 38 | 5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 30.7 | M |
CS01F11 | 11 | 50 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 30.7 | M |
CS01M8 | 8 | 330 | 16 | <5 | <5 | 30.7 | M |
CS01M7 | 7 | 460 | 20 | <5 | <5 | 30.7 | M |
CS04F2 | 2 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 7.8 | M |
CS05F13 | 13 | 8 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 2.8 | U |
CS08M11 | 11 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 2.2 | U |
CS08M8 | 8 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 2.2 | U |
CS08F6 | 6 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 2.2 | U |
CS09F30 | 30 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 3.1 | M and/or U |
CS10F44 | 44 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 25 | M |
CS11F61 | 61 | 7 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 7.8 | M and/or U |
CS12M10 | 10 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 5.6 | M and/or U |
CS12M6 | 6 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 5.6 | M and/or U |
CS12M3 | 3 | 6 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 5.6 | M and/or U |
CS14M2 | 2 | 7 | <5 | <5 | <5 | NA | U |
CS16F47 | 47 | >2500 | 590 | 710 | 100 | 49 | M |
CS17M56 | 56 | 80 | 7 | <5 | <5 | 24 | M and/or U |
CS18F47 | 47 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 4.3 | M |
CS18M13 | 13 | 7 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 4.3 | M |
CS19F44 | 44 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 18.8 | M |
CS19M51 | 51 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 18.8 | M |
CS19M7 | 7 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 18.8 | M |
CS19F4 | 4 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 18.8 | M |
CS22F39 | 39 | 50 | <5 | 11 | <5 | 18 | M and/or U |
CS22F4 | 4 | 200 | 15 | 40 | <5 | 18 | M and/or U |
CS22M2 | 2 | 980 | 50 | 280 | 17 | 18 | M and/or U |
CS23F41 | 41 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 14.7 | U |
CS23F42 | 42 | 30 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 14.7 | U |
CS23F7 | 7 | 13 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 14.7 | U |
CS23F3 | 3 | 40 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 14.7 | U |
CS24F8 | 8 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 6.6 | M and/or U |
CS24M6 | 6 | 7 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 6.6 | M and/or U |
CS24M0 | 0.66 | 80 | <5 | 16 | <5 | 6.6 | M and/or U |
CS25M63 | 63 | <5 | <5 | <5 | <5 | 1.2 | M and/or U |
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Wright, J.; Kenneally, M.; Ross, K.; Walker, S. Environmental Methamphetamine Exposures and Health Effects in 25 Case Studies. Toxics 2020, 8, 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics8030061
Wright J, Kenneally M, Ross K, Walker S. Environmental Methamphetamine Exposures and Health Effects in 25 Case Studies. Toxics. 2020; 8(3):61. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics8030061
Chicago/Turabian StyleWright, Jackie, Michaela Kenneally, Kirstin Ross, and Stewart Walker. 2020. "Environmental Methamphetamine Exposures and Health Effects in 25 Case Studies" Toxics 8, no. 3: 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics8030061