Exploring Endophytic Fungi as Natural Antagonists against Fungal Pathogens of Food Crops
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Endophytic Fungi
3.1. Ecological Role of the Endophytic Fungi
3.2. Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Endophytic Fungi in Plant Disease Control
4. Pathogenic Fungal Species in Food Crops
4.1. Leaf Fungal Diseases
4.2. Root Fungal Diseases
4.3. Stem Fungal Diseases
4.4. Fruit Fungal Diseases
4.5. Fungal Diseases in Vegetable Crops
4.6. Fungal Diseases in Cereal Crops
Host Plant | Fungal Disease | Disease-Causing Fungi | Symptoms | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Banana | Panama wilt | Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense | Older leaves turn yellow, then necrotic and collapse, with vascular bundles exhibiting purplish brown discoloration | [115] |
Anthracnose | Colletotrichum musae | Brown lesions on ripened banana fruits, mature lesions become diamond-shaped, dark brown to black color with yellow halos | [115,116] | |
Banana black Sigatoka (black leaf streak) | Mycosphaerella fijiensis | Reddish brown spots on the lower leaf surface that later develop into large spots | [115] | |
Cordana leaf spot | Cordana musae | Pale brown, necrotic, oval-shaped spots on leaves, characterized by concentric zonation with a dark margin surrounded by a yellow halo | ||
Bean | Anthracnose | Colletotrichum lindemuthianum | Dark brown necrotic lesions on leaves accompanied by reduced photosynthetic activity | [62] |
White mold | Sclerotinia sclerotium | Water-soaked, circular, dark green lesions on leaves, pods, stems, and branches, with white cottony mycelium growing on infected flower surfaces | [117] | |
Angular leaf spot | Pseudocercospora griseola | Angular-shaped necrotic lesions with yellow halos on leaves, reddish brown to black circular spots on pods, elongated, brown lesions on stems, petioles, and branches | [118] | |
Powdery mildew | Erysiphe polygonii | Leaves covered with whitish grey powdery growth, later infected leaves turn yellow and drop off, infected pods and stems covered with white mildew | [119] | |
Cercospora leaf spot | Cercospora cruenta, C. canescens | Defoliation and severe leaf spotting during pod formation and flowering | [120] | |
Bean rust | Uromyces appendiculaters | White/light green spots on upper and lower leaf surfaces that turn into reddish brown pustules surrounded by yellow tissue, later leaves exhibit yellowing, senescence, and drop off | [121] | |
Coffee | Leaf rust | Hemileia vastatrix | Light yellow, small spots on upper leaf surface, orange-yellow to red-orange powdery lesions on underside of leaves, premature leaf drop | [122] |
Wilt disease | Fusarium xylarioides | Yellowing and withering of leaves, development of brown necrotic lesions, curling, drying, and falling of leaves | ||
Cercospora blotch | Cercospora coffeicola | Round/irregular, small light brown to brown lesions with dark purple/black margins on leaves, brown, sunken, longitudinal/oval/irregular lesions with a grey center on green berries | ||
Maize | Anthracnose stalk rot | Colletotrichum graminicola | Foliar leaf blight, light brown spindle-shaped/oval-shaped water-soaked lesions with dark brown/purple margins on lower leaves, soft stalks with rot and reflective black strips on internodes | [123] |
Charcoal rot | Macrophomina phaseolina | Progressive wilting, premature dying, loss of vigor, decreased yield | ||
Corn smut | Ustilago maydis | Formation of mushroom-like galls on maize kernels, chlorosis, decreased growth | ||
Southern leaf blight | Bipolaris maydis | Cob rot, premature falling of corn ears | ||
Mango | Malformation disease | Fusarium moniliformae var. subglutinans | Presence of shorter, thicker, and highly branched inflorescences, increases in male flowers and reduces fertility in hermaphroditic flowers | [124] |
Powdery mildew | Oidium mangiferae | White powdery growth covering the stalks of the leaves, young fruits, inflorescences, and flowers | [125] | |
Anthracnose | Colletotrichum gloeosporioides | Dark brown irregular or oval sunken spots on leaves, black necrotic sunken lesions on the peel of the fruit | [59] | |
Dieback | Lasiodiplodia theobromae | Dark patches on green twigs, later complete defoliation result in fire scorch | [125] | |
Stem end rot | Alternaria alternata, Botryosphaeria spp., Botrytis cinerea, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Cytosphaera mangifera, Dothiorella mangiferae, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Phomopsis mangiferae, Pestalotiopsis mangiferae | Soft brown rot at the stem end of mango fruit that quickly spreads to the whole fruit, with secretion of straw-colored fluid from the stem end | [126] | |
Potato | Black dot | Colletotrichum coccodes | Macroscopic black sclerotia are the major symptom, later turns into brown or silver lesions | [127] |
Late blight | Phytophthora infestans | Irregular-shaped, water-soaked, pale green lesions near the margins and tips of leaves; they grow rapidly and turn into brown to purplish black, large, necrotic lesions; later the whole crop becomes blackened blight | [128] | |
Grey mold | Botrytis cinerea | Tan-colored, wedge-shaped lesions on leaves; slimy brown rot on infected stems; discolored, pitted, sunken areas in tubers; grey color fuzzy growth on infected tubers | [129] | |
Rice | Sheath blight | Rhizoctonia solani | Oval/irregular/elliptical greenish grey spots on the leaf sheath; brown/dark brown sclerotia and brown silky mycelium loosely attached to the lesions in moist conditions; the entire leaf and plant later die | [130] |
Rice blast disease | Pyricularia oryzae | Elliptical spots with pointed ends featuring whitish/grey color centers and brown/reddish brown margins | [131] | |
Brown spot | Bipolaris oryzae | Brown, small, circular/oval-shaped spots with whitish grey centers and yellow halos all over the leaf surfaces; small, dark brown/purple-brown young spots | [132] | |
Tea | Blister blight | Exobasidium vexans | Lemon green translucent spots on the first/second leaves, powdery white coating on blisters, shoot dieback | [133] |
Anthracnose | Colletotrichum camelliae | Yellowish green, small, diffuse spots, spots turn into dark brown, necrotic lesions with concentric rings, twig dieback | ||
Gray blight | Pestalotiopsis longiseta | Concentric brown spots in the middle of the leaf, spots turn gray with brown margins and cover entire leaf, young shoot dieback | ||
Tomato | Damping-off | Pythium spp. | Complete rotting of seedlings, water-soaked and soft collar tissues | [134] |
Powdery mildew | Leveillula taurica | Light green to bright yellow spots on the upper surfaces of leaves, light powdery coatings on the lower leaf surfaces, necrotic lesions, defoliation, small and sunburned fruits | ||
Tomato wilt | Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici | Yellowing of leaves, downward curling, browning, and drying of infected leaves | ||
Anthracnose | Colletotrichum coccodes | Small, circular, and sunken lesions on ripening fruit surfaces, spots enlarge into bruise-like depressions with a water-soaked appearance | ||
Wheat | Leaf rust | Puccinia triticina | Circular to slightly oval, non-merged pustules on stems or leaves | [135] |
Powdery mildew | Blumeria graminis | Greyish powder on stems and upper and lower surfaces of leaves | ||
Crown root rot | Bipolaris sorokiniana | Infected crowns turn brown with brown to black small lesions on primary and secondary roots |
5. Management of Plant Fungal Diseases
6. Antagonistic Activity of Endophytic Fungal Species
6.1. Antagonistic Activity of Trichoderma spp.
6.2. Antagonistic Activity of Penicillium spp.
6.3. Antagonistic Activity of Muscodor spp.
6.4. Antagonistic Activity of Other Endophytic Fungi
7. Future Prospects
8. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Host Plant | Endophytic Fungus | Hormone Secreted | Function of the Hormone | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cucumis sativus (Cucumber) | Phoma glomerate and Penicillium sp. | Gibberellic acid, IAA | Enhance plant biomass and growth parameters, facilitate the assimilation of essential nutrients, and reduce Na toxicity in drought conditions | [38] |
Glycine max (Soybean) | Cladosporium sphaerospermum | Gibberellic acid | Stimulate plant growth of rice and soybean | [37] |
Porostereum spandiceum | Gibberellins | Promote seed germination of soybean, while saving plants from normal and salt-affected conditions, increase chlorophyll content | [39] | |
Helianthus annus (Sunflower) | Penicillium citrinum, Aspergillus terreus | IAA, Gibberellic acid | Promote plant growth of sunflower and regulate hormone signaling networks | [40] |
Oryza granulata (Wild rice) | Falciphora oryzae | IAA | Improve lateral root growth, while reducing the primary root length | [41] |
Oryza sativa (Rice) | Phoma sp. and Penicillium sp. | Gibberellins, IAA | Promote shoot and growth of rice during stress conditions such as salinity and drought | [38] |
Trapa japonica (Water chestnut) | Galactomyces geotrichum | Jasmonic acid | Induce systemic resistance in soybean | |
Withenia somnifera (Ashwagandha/Winter cherry) | Aspergillus awamori | Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) | Stimulate plant growth of maize | [42] |
Zea mays (Maize) | Trichoderma atrovorode | Salicylic acid, Absisic acid, Jasmonic acid | Control pathogenicity of Fusarium verticillioides in maize | [43] |
Host Plant | Endophytic Fungus | Secondary Metabolite | Bioactivity | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Camellia sinensis Theaceae (Tea) | Pestalotiopsis theae | Punctaporonin H | Cytotoxicity and antibacterial activity | [34] |
Chaetomium seminudum (Brown rice) | Chaetomium seminudum | Chaetosemins B | Antifungal activity against Gibberella saubinetti and Magnaporthe oryzae (Pyricularia oryzae) | |
Chaetomium seminudum | Chaetosemins C | Antioxidant activity | ||
Garcinia adulcis (Yellow mangosteen/Mundu) | Phomopsis spp. | Phomoenamide, Phomonitroester | Antitubercular activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis | [37] |
Ginkgo biloba (Gingko/Maidenhair) | Fusarium oxysporum | Ginkolide B | Antiallergic and anti-inflammatory properties | [22] |
Mangifera casturi Kosterm (Kasturi mango) | Aspergillus oryzae | Kojic acid | Antioxidant activity | [44] |
Aspergillus minisclerotigens | Dihydropyran | Antioxidant activity | ||
Oryza sativa (Rice) | Biscogniauxia cylindrospora | Isofraxidin | Antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant activities | [22] |
Annulohypoxylon boveri var. microspora | Cinnamic acid | Antibacterial and antioxidant activities | ||
Pandanus amaryllifolius (Pandan) | Diaporthe sp. | Benzopyran, Diaportheone A and B | Antitubercular activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis | [37] |
Piper nigrum (Black pepper) | Colletotrichum gloeosporioides | Piperine | Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antibacterial, and antidiarrheal activities | [22] |
Triticum aestivum (Wheat) | Nigrospora oryzae | Pipecolisporin | Antiparasitic activity against Trypanosoma cruzi and Plasmodium falciparum | [45] |
Vanilla albindia (Vanilla) | Phomopsis archeri | Phomoxanthones A–C | Antimalarial activity | [37] |
Zea mays (Maize) | Acremonium zeae | Pyrrocidine A and B | Antibacterial activity | [46] |
Zea mays (Maize) | Fusarium sp. | Caffeine | Antifungal activity against Alternaria alternata | [45] |
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Manathunga, K.K.; Gunasekara, N.W.; Meegahakumbura, M.K.; Ratnaweera, P.B.; Faraj, T.K.; Wanasinghe, D.N. Exploring Endophytic Fungi as Natural Antagonists against Fungal Pathogens of Food Crops. J. Fungi 2024, 10, 606. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10090606
Manathunga KK, Gunasekara NW, Meegahakumbura MK, Ratnaweera PB, Faraj TK, Wanasinghe DN. Exploring Endophytic Fungi as Natural Antagonists against Fungal Pathogens of Food Crops. Journal of Fungi. 2024; 10(9):606. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10090606
Chicago/Turabian StyleManathunga, Kumudu K., Niranjan W. Gunasekara, Muditha K. Meegahakumbura, Pamoda B. Ratnaweera, Turki Kh. Faraj, and Dhanushka N. Wanasinghe. 2024. "Exploring Endophytic Fungi as Natural Antagonists against Fungal Pathogens of Food Crops" Journal of Fungi 10, no. 9: 606. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10090606