Aflatoxin Biosynthesis, Genetic Regulation, Toxicity, and Control Strategies: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biosynthetic Pathway of Aflatoxins
2.1. Synthesis of Norsolorinic Acid (NOR)
2.2. NOR Conversion to Averantin (AVN)
2.3. AVN Conversion to 5′-Hydroxyaverantin (HAVN)
2.4. HAVN Conversion to Averufin (AVF)
2.5. AVF Conversion to Versiconal Hemiacetal Acetate (VHA)
2.6. VHA Conversion to Versiconal (VAL)
2.7. VAL Conversion to Versicolorin-B (VERB)
2.8. VERB Conversion to Versicolorin A (VERA)-AFB1-AFG1 Pathway
2.9. VERA Conversion to Demethylsterigmatocystin (DMST) and VERB Conversion to Dihydro Demethylsterigmatocystin (DHDMST)
2.10. DMST Conversion to Sterigmatocystin (ST) and DHDMST Conversion to Dihydrosterigmatocystin (DHST)
2.11. ST Conversion to O-Methylsterigmatocystin (OMST) and DHST Conversion to Dihydro-O-Methylsterigmatocystin (DHOMST)
2.12. OMST Conversion to AFB1 and DHOMST Conversion to AFB2
2.13. Bis. OMST Conversion to AFG1 and DHOMST Conversion to AFG2
3. Genetic Regulation of Aflatoxin Biosynthesis
3.1. AflR, a Specific Transcription Factor
3.2. AflS, a Putative Transcription Factor
- It may operate as an aflR coactivator [44], although its deletion has little effect on aflR transcript levels.
- It strongly affects the early genes involved in AF production [45].
- AflS mutants inhibit the aflC, aflD, aflM, and aflP’s transcription by up to 20 times yet do not affect the expression of aflR. In contrast, other researchers ruled out the effects of aflS on aflM and aflP’s expression.
- It is vital for LaeA to target a particular gene cluster. Furthermore, it is sensitive to temperature during incubation; henceforth, the expressions of aflS and aflR were increased by 24 times at 30 °C compared to 37 °C [46].
3.3. General Transcription Regulators
4. Aflatoxins Toxicity
4.1. Chronic Aflatoxicosis
4.1.1. Immunotoxicity
4.1.2. Innate Immunity
4.1.3. Adaptive Immunity
4.1.4. Teratogenicity
4.1.5. Malnutrition
4.1.6. Neurodegenerative Diseases
4.2. Acute Toxicity
5. Strategies for Aflatoxin Mitigation
5.1. Bt Corn
5.2. Biocontrol
5.3. Clay
5.4. Plants Volatiles
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Khan, R.; Ghazali, F.M.; Mahyudin, N.A.; Samsudin, N.I.P. Aflatoxin Biosynthesis, Genetic Regulation, Toxicity, and Control Strategies: A Review. J. Fungi 2021, 7, 606. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7080606
Khan R, Ghazali FM, Mahyudin NA, Samsudin NIP. Aflatoxin Biosynthesis, Genetic Regulation, Toxicity, and Control Strategies: A Review. Journal of Fungi. 2021; 7(8):606. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7080606
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhan, Rahim, Farinazleen Mohamad Ghazali, Nor Ainy Mahyudin, and Nik Iskandar Putra Samsudin. 2021. "Aflatoxin Biosynthesis, Genetic Regulation, Toxicity, and Control Strategies: A Review" Journal of Fungi 7, no. 8: 606. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7080606