Non-Coding RNA

6 pages, 231 KiB

Open AccessCommentary

microRNA Heterogeneity, Innate-Immune Defense and the Efficacy of SARS-CoV-2 Infection—A Commentary

by Walter J. Lukiw

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020037 - 18 Jun 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3980

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), a member of the genus Betacoronavirus in the family Coronaviridae, possesses an unusually large single-stranded viral RNA (ssvRNA) genome of about ~29,811 nucleotides (nt) that causes severe and acute respiratory distress and a highly lethal viral [...] Read more.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), a member of the genus Betacoronavirus in the family Coronaviridae, possesses an unusually large single-stranded viral RNA (ssvRNA) genome of about ~29,811 nucleotides (nt) that causes severe and acute respiratory distress and a highly lethal viral pneumonia known as COVID-19. COVID-19 also presents with multiple ancillary systemic diseases and often involves cardiovascular, inflammatory, and/or neurological complications. Pathological viral genomes consisting of ssvRNA, like cellular messenger RNA (mRNA), are susceptible to attack, destruction, neutralization, and/or modulation by naturally occurring small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) within the host cell, some of which are known as microRNAs (miRNAs). This paper proposes that the actions of the 2650 known human miRNAs and other sncRNAs form the basis for an under-recognized and unappreciated innate-immune regulator of ssvRNA viral genome activities and have implications for the efficiency of SARS-CoV-2 invasion, infection, and replication. Recent research indicates that both miRNA and mRNA abundance, speciation, and complexity varies widely amongst human individuals, and this may: (i) In part explain the variability in the innate-immune immunological and pathophysiological response of different human individuals to the initiation and progression of SARS-CoV-2 infection in multiple tissue types; and (ii) further support our understanding of human biochemical and genetic individuality and the variable resistance of individuals to ssvRNA-mediated viral infection and disease. This commentary will briefly address current findings and concepts in this fascinating research area of non-coding RNA and innate-immunity with special reference to natural host miRNAs, SARS-CoV-2, and the current COVID-19 pandemic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Non-Coding RNAs, COVID-19, and Long-COVID)

25 pages, 3064 KiB

Open AccessReview

Long Non-Coding RNA (lncRNA) Roles in Cell Biology, Neurodevelopment and Neurological Disorders

by Vincenza Aliperti, Justyna Skonieczna and Andrea Cerase

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020036 - 17 Jun 2021

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 9870

Abstract

Development is a complex process regulated both by genetic and epigenetic and environmental clues. Recently, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have emerged as key regulators of gene expression in several tissues including the brain. Altered expression of lncRNAs has been linked to several neurodegenerative, [...] Read more.

Development is a complex process regulated both by genetic and epigenetic and environmental clues. Recently, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have emerged as key regulators of gene expression in several tissues including the brain. Altered expression of lncRNAs has been linked to several neurodegenerative, neurodevelopmental and mental disorders. The identification and characterization of lncRNAs that are deregulated or mutated in neurodevelopmental and mental health diseases are fundamental to understanding the complex transcriptional processes in brain function. Crucially, lncRNAs can be exploited as a novel target for treating neurological disorders. In our review, we first summarize the recent advances in our understanding of lncRNA functions in the context of cell biology and then discussing their association with selected neuronal development and neurological disorders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Role of lncRNAs in Brain Development and Disease)

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11 pages, 285 KiB

Open AccessReview

Emerging Role of MicroRNA-200 Family in Dentistry

by Pei-Ling Hsieh, Chun-Chung Huang and Cheng-Chia Yu

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020035 - 11 Jun 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4547

Abstract

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous non-coding RNAs ~22 nucleotides in length, which have been shown to participate in various biological processes. As one of the most researched miRNAs, the miR-200 family has been found to regulate several factors that are associated with the epithelial [...] Read more.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous non-coding RNAs ~22 nucleotides in length, which have been shown to participate in various biological processes. As one of the most researched miRNAs, the miR-200 family has been found to regulate several factors that are associated with the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and cancer stem cells (CSCs) behavior. In this review, we briefly summarize the background of the miR-200 family and their implication in various dental diseases. We focus on the expression changes, biological functions, and clinical significance of the miR-200 family in oral cancer; periodontitis; oral potentially malignant disorder; gingival overgrowth; and other periodontal diseases. Additionally, we discuss the use of the miR-200 family as molecular biomarkers for diagnosis, prognostic, and therapeutic application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Non-Coding RNA)

14 pages, 1235 KiB

Open AccessReview

Long Non-Coding RNAs in the Control of Gametogenesis: Lessons from Fission Yeast

by Vedrana Andric and Mathieu Rougemaille

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020034 - 11 Jun 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5021

Abstract

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) contribute to cell fate decisions by modulating genome expression and stability. In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the transition from mitosis to meiosis results in a marked remodeling of gene expression profiles, which ultimately ensures gamete production and [...] Read more.

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) contribute to cell fate decisions by modulating genome expression and stability. In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the transition from mitosis to meiosis results in a marked remodeling of gene expression profiles, which ultimately ensures gamete production and inheritance of genetic information to the offspring. This key developmental process involves a set of dedicated lncRNAs that shape cell cycle-dependent transcriptomes through a variety of mechanisms, including epigenetic modifications and the modulation of transcription, post-transcriptional and post-translational regulations, and that contribute to meiosis-specific chromosomal events. In this review, we summarize the biology of these lncRNAs, from their identification to mechanism of action, and discuss their regulatory role in the control of gametogenesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-coding RNA: 5th Anniversary)

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20 pages, 880 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Survey of Current Resources to Study lncRNA-Protein Interactions

by Melcy Philip, Tyrone Chen and Sonika Tyagi

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020033 - 8 Jun 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6599

Abstract

Phenotypes are driven by regulated gene expression, which in turn are mediated by complex interactions between diverse biological molecules. Protein–DNA interactions such as histone and transcription factor binding are well studied, along with RNA–RNA interactions in short RNA silencing of genes. In contrast, [...] Read more.

Phenotypes are driven by regulated gene expression, which in turn are mediated by complex interactions between diverse biological molecules. Protein–DNA interactions such as histone and transcription factor binding are well studied, along with RNA–RNA interactions in short RNA silencing of genes. In contrast, lncRNA-protein interaction (LPI) mechanisms are comparatively unknown, likely directed by the difficulties in studying LPI. However, LPI are emerging as key interactions in epigenetic mechanisms, playing a role in development and disease. Their importance is further highlighted by their conservation across kingdoms. Hence, interest in LPI research is increasing. We therefore review the current state of the art in lncRNA-protein interactions. We specifically surveyed recent computational methods and databases which researchers can exploit for LPI investigation. We discovered that algorithm development is heavily reliant on a few generic databases containing curated LPI information. Additionally, these databases house information at gene-level as opposed to transcript-level annotations. We show that early methods predict LPI using molecular docking, have limited scope and are slow, creating a data processing bottleneck. Recently, machine learning has become the strategy of choice in LPI prediction, likely due to the rapid growth in machine learning infrastructure and expertise. While many of these methods have notable limitations, machine learning is expected to be the basis of modern LPI prediction algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioinformatics Softwares and Databases for Non-coding RNA Research 2.0)

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15 pages, 8026 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes of the tRNA Modification Pattern during the Development of Dictyostelium discoideum

by Anne Hoffmann, Lieselotte Erber, Heike Betat, Peter F. Stadler, Mario Mörl and Jörg Fallmann

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020032 - 28 May 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5215

Abstract

Dictyostelium discoideum is a social amoeba, which on starvation develops from a single-cell state to a multicellular fruiting body. This developmental process is accompanied by massive changes in gene expression, which also affect non-coding RNAs. Here, we investigate how tRNAs as key regulators [...] Read more.

Dictyostelium discoideum is a social amoeba, which on starvation develops from a single-cell state to a multicellular fruiting body. This developmental process is accompanied by massive changes in gene expression, which also affect non-coding RNAs. Here, we investigate how tRNAs as key regulators of the translation process are affected by this transition. To this end, we used LOTTE-seq to sequence the tRNA pool of D. discoideum at different developmental time points and analyzed both tRNA composition and tRNA modification patterns. We developed a workflow for the specific detection of modifications from reverse transcriptase signatures in chemically untreated RNA-seq data at single-nucleotide resolution. It avoids the comparison of treated and untreated RNA-seq data using reverse transcription arrest patterns at nucleotides in the neighborhood of a putative modification site as internal control. We find that nucleotide modification sites in D. discoideum tRNAs largely conform to the modification patterns observed throughout the eukaroytes. However, there are also previously undescribed modification sites. We observe substantial dynamic changes of both expression levels and modification patterns of certain tRNA types during fruiting body development. Beyond the specific application to D. discoideum our results demonstrate that the developmental variability of tRNA expression and modification can be traced efficiently with LOTTE-seq. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Research on RNA Modification)

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16 pages, 1518 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Elucidating the Functions of Non-Coding RNAs from the Perspective of RNA Modifications

by Venkata Naga Srikanth Garikipati and Shizuka Uchida

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020031 - 11 May 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5716

Abstract

It is now commonly accepted that most of the mammalian genome is transcribed as RNA, yet less than 2% of such RNA encode for proteins. A majority of transcribed RNA exists as non-protein-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) with various functions. Because of the lack of [...] Read more.

It is now commonly accepted that most of the mammalian genome is transcribed as RNA, yet less than 2% of such RNA encode for proteins. A majority of transcribed RNA exists as non-protein-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) with various functions. Because of the lack of sequence homologies among most ncRNAs species, it is difficult to infer the potential functions of ncRNAs by examining sequence patterns, such as catalytic domains, as in the case of proteins. Added to the existing complexity of predicting the functions of the ever-growing number of ncRNAs, increasing evidence suggests that various enzymes modify ncRNAs (e.g., ADARs, METTL3, and METTL14), which has opened up a new field of study called epitranscriptomics. Here, we examine the current status of ncRNA research from the perspective of epitranscriptomics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-coding RNA: 5th Anniversary)

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22 pages, 1701 KiB

Open AccessReview

Emerging Data on the Diversity of Molecular Mechanisms Involving C/D snoRNAs

by Laeya Baldini, Bruno Charpentier and Stéphane Labialle

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020030 - 6 May 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6647

Abstract

Box C/D small nucleolar RNAs (C/D snoRNAs) represent an ancient family of small non-coding RNAs that are classically viewed as housekeeping guides for the 2′-O-methylation of ribosomal RNA in Archaea and Eukaryotes. However, an extensive set of studies now argues that they are [...] Read more.

Box C/D small nucleolar RNAs (C/D snoRNAs) represent an ancient family of small non-coding RNAs that are classically viewed as housekeeping guides for the 2′-O-methylation of ribosomal RNA in Archaea and Eukaryotes. However, an extensive set of studies now argues that they are involved in mechanisms that go well beyond this function. Here, we present these pieces of evidence in light of the current comprehension of the molecular mechanisms that control C/D snoRNA expression and function. From this inventory emerges that an accurate description of these activities at a molecular level is required to let the snoRNA field enter in a second age of maturity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-coding RNA: 5th Anniversary)

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2 pages, 154 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Post-Transcriptional Regulation through Long Non-Coding RNAs (lncRNAs)

by Giuseppina Pisignano and Michael Ladomery

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020029 - 29 Apr 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3930

Abstract

The discovery of thousands of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) pervasively transcribed from the eukaryotic genome has revolutionized the “central dogma” of biology and shifted the attention on the role of RNAs as regulatory molecules, more than simply traditional mediators of genomic information [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-transcriptional Regulation through Long Non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs))

19 pages, 2799 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Global Analysis of RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase-Dependent Small RNAs Reveals New Substrates and Functions for These Proteins and SGS3 in Arabidopsis

by Xia Hua, Nathan D. Berkowitz, Matthew R. Willmann, Xiang Yu, Eric Lyons and Brian D. Gregory

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020028 - 27 Apr 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5957

Abstract

RNA silencing pathways control eukaryotic gene expression transcriptionally or posttranscriptionally in a sequence-specific manner. In RNA silencing, the production of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) gives rise to various classes of 20–24 nucleotide (nt) small RNAs (smRNAs). In Arabidopsis thaliana, smRNAs are often derived [...] Read more.

RNA silencing pathways control eukaryotic gene expression transcriptionally or posttranscriptionally in a sequence-specific manner. In RNA silencing, the production of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) gives rise to various classes of 20–24 nucleotide (nt) small RNAs (smRNAs). In Arabidopsis thaliana, smRNAs are often derived from long dsRNA molecules synthesized by one of the six genomically encoded RNA-dependent RNA Polymerase (RDR) proteins. However, the full complement of the RDR-dependent smRNAs and functions that these proteins and their RNA-binding cofactors play in plant RNA silencing has not been fully uncovered. To address this gap, we performed a global genomic analysis of all six RDRs and two of their cofactors to find new substrates for RDRs and targets of the resulting RDR-derived siRNAs to uncover new functions for these proteins in plants. Based on these analyses, we identified substrates for the three RDRγ clade proteins (RDR3–5), which had not been well-characterized previously. We also identified new substrates for the other three RDRs (RDR1, RDR2, and RDR6) as well as the RDR2 cofactor RNA-directed DNA methylation 12 (RDM12) and the RDR6 cofactor suppressor of gene silencing 3 (SGS3). These findings revealed that the target substrates of SGS3 are not limited to those solely utilized by RDR6, but that this protein seems to be a more general cofactor for the RDR family of proteins. Additionally, we found that RDR6 and SGS3 are involved in the production of smRNAs that target transcripts related to abiotic stresses, including water deprivation, salt stress, and ABA response, and as expected the levels of these mRNAs are increased in rdr6 and sgs3 mutant plants. Correspondingly, plants that lack these proteins (rdr6 and sgs3 mutants) are hypersensitive to ABA treatment, tolerant to high levels of PEG8000, and have a higher survival rate under salt treatment in comparison to wild-type plants. In total, our analyses have provided an extremely data-rich resource for uncovering new functions of RDR-dependent RNA silencing in plants, while also revealing a previously unexplored link between the RDR6/SGS3-dependent pathway and plant abiotic stress responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Non-Coding RNA)

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15 pages, 1005 KiB

Open AccessReview

An Analysis of Mechanisms for Cellular Uptake of miRNAs to Enhance Drug Delivery and Efficacy in Cancer Chemoresistance

by Justine M. Grixti, Duncan Ayers and Philip J. R. Day

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020027 - 16 Apr 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4953

Abstract

Up until recently, it was believed that pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites enter into the cell to gain access to their targets via simple diffusion across the hydrophobic lipid cellular membrane, at a rate which is based on their lipophilicity. An increasing amount [...] Read more.

Up until recently, it was believed that pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites enter into the cell to gain access to their targets via simple diffusion across the hydrophobic lipid cellular membrane, at a rate which is based on their lipophilicity. An increasing amount of evidence indicates that the phospholipid bilayer-mediated drug diffusion is in fact negligible, and that drugs pass through cell membranes via proteinaceous membrane transporters or carriers which are normally used for the transportation of nutrients and intermediate metabolites. Drugs can be targeted to specific cells and tissues which express the relevant transporters, leading to the design of safe and efficacious treatments. Furthermore, transporter expression levels can be manipulated, systematically and in a high-throughput manner, allowing for considerable progress in determining which transporters are used by specific drugs. The ever-expanding field of miRNA therapeutics is not without its challenges, with the most notable one being the safe and effective delivery of the miRNA mimic/antagonist safely to the target cell cytoplasm for attaining the desired clinical outcome, particularly in miRNA-based cancer therapeutics, due to the poor efficiency of neo-vascular systems revolting around the tumour site, brought about by tumour-induced angiogenesis. This acquisition of resistance to several types of anticancer drugs can be as a result of an upregulation of efflux transporters expression, which eject drugs from cells, hence lowering drug efficacy, resulting in multidrug resistance. In this article, the latest available data on human microRNAs has been reviewed, together with the most recently described mechanisms for miRNA uptake in cells, for future therapeutic enhancements against cancer chemoresistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-coding RNAs Involved in Cancer Chemoresistance)

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13 pages, 3946 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exon–Intron Differential Analysis Reveals the Role of Competing Endogenous RNAs in Post-Transcriptional Regulation of Translation

by Nicolas Munz, Luciano Cascione, Luca Parmigiani, Chiara Tarantelli, Andrea Rinaldi, Natasa Cmiljanovic, Vladimir Cmiljanovic, Rosalba Giugno, Francesco Bertoni and Sara Napoli

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020026 - 16 Apr 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5618

Abstract

Stressful conditions induce the cell to save energy and activate a rescue program modulated by mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Along with transcriptional and translational regulation, the cell relies also on post-transcriptional modulation to quickly adapt the translation of essential proteins. MicroRNAs play [...] Read more.

Stressful conditions induce the cell to save energy and activate a rescue program modulated by mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Along with transcriptional and translational regulation, the cell relies also on post-transcriptional modulation to quickly adapt the translation of essential proteins. MicroRNAs play an important role in the regulation of protein translation, and their availability is tightly regulated by RNA competing mechanisms often mediated by long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). In our paper, we simulated the response to growth adverse condition by bimiralisib, a dual PI3K/mTOR inhibitor, in diffuse large B cell lymphoma cell lines, and we studied post-transcriptional regulation by the differential analysis of exonic and intronic RNA expression. In particular, we observed the upregulation of a lncRNA, lncTNK2-2:1, which correlated with the stabilization of transcripts involved in the regulation of translation and DNA damage after bimiralisib treatment. We identified miR-21-3p as miRNA likely sponged by lncTNK2-2:1, with consequent stabilization of the mRNA of p53, which is a master regulator of cell growth in response to DNA damage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-transcriptional Regulation through Long Non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs))

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15 pages, 2691 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long Non-Coding PROX1-AS1 Expression Correlates with Renal Cell Carcinoma Metastasis and Aggressiveness

by Magdalena Rudzinska, Karolina H. Czarnecka-Chrebelska, Ekaterina B. Kuznetsova, Sofya V. Maryanchik, Alessandro Parodi, Dmitry O. Korolev, Nataliya Potoldykova, Yulia Svetikova, Andrey Z. Vinarov, Marina V. Nemtsova and Andrey A. Zamyatnin, Jr.

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020025 - 10 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5275

Abstract

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) can be specifically expressed in different tissues and cancers. By controlling the gene expression at the transcriptional and translational levels, lncRNAs have been reported to be involved in tumor growth and metastasis. Recent data demonstrated that multiple lncRNAs have [...] Read more.

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) can be specifically expressed in different tissues and cancers. By controlling the gene expression at the transcriptional and translational levels, lncRNAs have been reported to be involved in tumor growth and metastasis. Recent data demonstrated that multiple lncRNAs have a crucial role in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) progression—the most common malignant urogenital tumor. In the present study, we found a trend towards increased PROX1 antisense RNA 1 (PROX1-AS1) expression in RCC specimens compared to non-tumoral margins. Next, we found a positive correlation between PROX1-AS1 expression and the occurrence of distant and lymph node metastasis, higher tumor stage (pT1 vs. pT2 vs. pT3–T4) and high-grade (G1/G2 vs. G3/G4) clear RCC. Furthermore, global demethylation in RCC-derived cell lines (769-P and A498) and human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells induced a significant increase of PROX1-AS1 expression level, with the most remarkable change in HEK293 cells. In line with this evidence, bisulfite sequencing analysis confirmed the specific demethylation of bioinformatically selected CpG islands on the PROX1-AS1 promoter sequence in the HEK293 cell line but not in the tumor cells. Additionally, the human specimen analysis showed the hemimethylated state of CG dinucleotides in non-tumor kidney tissues, whereas the tumor samples presented the complete, partial, or no demethylation of CpG-islands. In conclusion, our study indicated that PROX1-AS1 could be associated with RCC progression, and further investigations may define its role as a new diagnostic marker and therapeutic target. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-Coding RNA and Tumor Cell Motility)

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42 pages, 2777 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Mechanistic Roles of ncRNAs in Promoting and Supporting Chemoresistance of Colorectal Cancer

by Isaac Micallef and Byron Baron

Non-Coding RNA 2021, 7(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/ncrna7020024 - 31 Mar 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7366

Abstract

Colorectal Cancer (CRC) is one of the most common gastrointestinal malignancies which has quite a high mortality rate. Despite the advances made in CRC treatment, effective therapy is still quite challenging, particularly due to resistance arising throughout the treatment regimen. Several studies have [...] Read more.

Colorectal Cancer (CRC) is one of the most common gastrointestinal malignancies which has quite a high mortality rate. Despite the advances made in CRC treatment, effective therapy is still quite challenging, particularly due to resistance arising throughout the treatment regimen. Several studies have been carried out to identify CRC chemoresistance mechanisms, with research showing different signalling pathways, certain ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters and epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), among others to be responsible for the failure of CRC chemotherapies. In the last decade, it has become increasingly evident that certain non-coding RNA (ncRNA) families are involved in chemoresistance. Research investigations have demonstrated that dysregulation of microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs) contribute towards promoting resistance in CRC via different mechanisms. Considering the currently available data on this phenomenon, a better understanding of how these ncRNAs participate in chemoresistance can lead to suitable solutions to overcome this problem in CRC. This review will first focus on discussing the different mechanisms of CRC resistance identified so far. The focus will then shift onto the roles of miRNAs, lncRNAs and circRNAs in promoting 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), oxaliplatin (OXA), cisplatin and doxorubicin (DOX) resistance in CRC, specifically using ncRNAs which have been recently identified and validated under in vivo or in vitro conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-coding RNAs Involved in Cancer Chemoresistance)

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Non-Coding RNA, Volume 7, Issue 2 (June 2021) – 14 articles

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