Comprehensive Changes in Nutrient Constituents and Antioxidant Activity during Food Processing of Isoflavone-Enriched Soybean Leaf by Mycelia of Tricholoma matsutake
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experiment with Plants and Microorganisms
2.2. Reagents and Analytical Instruments
2.3. Preparation of IESL by Processing Stages
2.4. pH, Acidity, Brix, Reducing Sugars, and Soluble Proteins
2.5. Analysis of Fatty Acids
2.6. Analysis of Free Amino Acids
2.7. Analysis of Minerals
2.8. Analysis of Water-Soluble Vitamins
2.9. Metabolic Derivatization and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Analysis
2.10. Processing of Data
2.11. Extraction and Analysis of Antioxidant Activities
2.11.1. Preparation of Sample Extracts for Analysis of Antioxidant Activities
2.11.2. Analysis of Antioxidant Activities
2.12. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Changes in pH, Acidity, Brix, Reducing Sugars, and Soluble Proteins
3.2. Changes in Fatty Acid Compositions
3.3. Changes in Free Amino Acid Compositions
3.4. Changes in Mineral Compositions
3.5. Changes in Water-Soluble Vitamin Compositions
3.6. Changes in Metabolite Compositions
3.7. Changes in Antioxidant Activities
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Index 1 | Processing Stages 2 | ||
---|---|---|---|
Dried IESL | Sterilized IESL | Fermented IESL | |
pH | 5.76 ± 0.09 b | 5.83 ± 0.09 b | 6.33 ± 0.03 a |
Acidity (%, as lactic acid) | 0.09 ± 0.00 a | 0.08 ± 0.00 ab | 0.07 ± 0.01 b |
Brix (%) | 18.5 ± 0.03 a | 18.5 ± 0.02 a | 18.6 ± 0.03 a |
Reducing sugar (mg/mL) | 0.8 ± 0.02 c | 1.3 ± 0.03 b | 1.5 ± 0.04 a |
Soluble protein (mg/mL) | 2.26 ± 0.06 a | 2.17 ± 0.03 b | 2.09 ± 0.02 b |
Contents 1 (mg/100 g) | Processing Stages 2 | ||
---|---|---|---|
Dried IESL | Sterilized IESL | Fermented IESL | |
Saturated fatty acids | |||
Lauric acid (C12:0) | 2.9 ± 0.02 b | 4.4 ± 0.02 a | nd 3 |
Palmitic acid (C16:0) | 176.5 ± 1.83 b | 177.5 ± 2.88 b | 303.6 ± 2.18 a |
Stearic acid (C18:0) | 69.7 ± 0.49 b | 65.2 ± 0.26 c | 98.1 ± 0.91 a |
Arachidic acid (C20:0) | 6.2 ± 0.01 b | 6.6 ± 0.03 b | 10.5 ± 0.03 a |
Behenic acid (C22:0) | 6.2 ± 0.01 b | 6.8 ± 0.04 b | 14.0 ± 0.07 a |
Lignoceric acid (C24:0) | 7.7 ± 0.09 b | 8.3 ± 0.04 b | 18.7 ± 0.09 a |
Total | 269.2 | 268.8 | 444.9 |
Unsaturated fatty acids | |||
Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) | 9.6 ± 0.08 b | 10.1 ± 0.10 b | 13.5 ± 0.08 a |
Oleic acid (C18:1c) | 29.1 ± 0.46 b | 32.0 ± 0.60 b | 77.7 ± 0.89 a |
Linoleic acid (C18:2c) | 56.2 ± 0.81 b | 56.7 ± 0.84 b | 274.9 ± 1.75 a |
α-Linolenic acid (C18:3n3) | 46.9 ± 0.35 b | 47.2 ± 0.36 b | 87.8 ± 0.39 a |
Ecosadienoic acid (C20:2) | nd | 2.5 ± 0.13 a | 2.3 ± 0.12 b |
Arachidonic acid (C20:4n6) | 2.8 ± 0.04 b | 3.0 ± 0.05 b | 6.1 ± 0.01 a |
Nervonic acid (C24:1n9) | nd | nd | 2.2 ± 0.01 a |
Total | 144.6 | 151.5 | 464.5 |
Total fatty acids | 413.8 | 420.3 | 909.4 |
Contents 1 (mg/100 g) | Processing Stages 2 | ||
---|---|---|---|
Dried IESL | Sterilized IESL | Fermented IESL | |
Non-essential amino acids | |||
Proline | 157.34 ± 2.90 a | 135.45 ± 1.17 b | 24.10 ± 0.11 c |
Hydroxyproline | 1.07 ± 0.01 b | 2.58 ± 0.03 ab | 3.24 ± 0.06 a |
Aspartic acid | 176.84 ± 2.66 a | 161.28 ± 3.11 b | 71.76 ± 0.69 c |
Serine | 96.82 ± 2.84 a | 80.27 ± 1.81 b | 54.61 ± 0.43 c |
Aspartic acid—NH2 | 653.12 ± 11.06 a | 529.22 ± 6.16 b | 50.05 ± 0.51 c |
Glutamic acid | 121.53 ± 0.08 b | 65.57 ± 1.28 c | 211.65 ± 2.58 a |
Sarcosine | nd 3 | nd | 23.13 ± 1.16 a |
Aminoadipic acid | 30.60 ± 0.93 b | 27.52 ± 0.78 b | 67.54 ± 0.18 a |
Glycine | 17.28 ± 0.18 b | 16.88 ± 0.48 b | 36.34 ± 0.28 a |
Alanine | 87.71 ± 0.99 a | 71.11 ± 0.96 c | 77.63 ± 0.98 b |
Citrulline | 7.57 ± 0.08 b | 4.30 ± 0.02 c | 11.88 ± 0.05 a |
α-aminobutyric acid | 8.56 ± 0.14 a | 6.76 ± 0.13 b | 3.11 ± 0.02 c |
Cystine | 19.58 ± 0.78 b | 6.31 ± 0.12 c | 30.06 ± 1.05 a |
Cystathionine | nd | nd | 12.07 ± 0.06 a |
Tyrosine | 51.50 ± 1.85 b | 31.91 ± 0.76 c | 67.83 ± 1.93 a |
β-alanine | 26.95 ± 0.25 a | 18.06 ± 0.09 c | 22.79 ± 0.94 b |
β-aminoisobutyric acid | 37.73 ± 0.90 b | 11.62 ± 0.28 c | 54.74 ± 1.84 a |
γ-aminobutyric acid | 134.66 ± 2.30 a | 121.61 ± 1.80 b | 25.93 ± 0.40 c |
Aminoethanol | 17.04 ± 0.15 b | 11.56 ± 0.18 c | 24.31 ± 0.22 a |
Hydroxylysine | nd | 3.60 ± 0.02 a | nd |
Ornithine | 4.29 ± 0.01 b | 3.82 ± 0.01 c | 24.92 ± 0.05 a |
Anserine | 4.79 ± 0.09 b | 2.47 ± 0.08 c | 17.73 ± 0.12 a |
Arginine | 183.57 ± 2.38 a | 135.14 ± 0.88 b | 57.60 ± 0.67 c |
Total | 1838.55 | 1447.04 | 973.02 |
Essential amino acids | |||
Threonine | 41.90 ± 0.21 b | 32.49 ± 0.26 c | 48.73 ± 1.01 a |
Valine | 128.83 ± 2.11 a | 106.32 ± 3.21 b | 58.35 ± 1.09 c |
Methionine | 10.54 ± 0.12 b | 3.79 ± 0.03 c | 25.27 ± 0.16 a |
Isoleucine | 72.74 ± 1.41 a | 61.22 ± 2.60 b | 57.47 ± 0.08 c |
Leucine | 71.95 ± 0.42 b | 50.39 ± 0.25 c | 80.95 ± 1.50 a |
Phenylalanine | 145.76 ± 2.29 a | 106.66 ± 3.33 b | 89.30 ± 1.47 c |
Lysine | 48.54 ± 0.43 b | 30.50 ± 0.53 c | 82.02 ± 0.10 a |
Histidine | 30.90 ± 0.55 a | 22.49 ± 0.12 b | 19.14 ± 0.26 c |
Total | 551.16 | 413.86 | 461.23 |
Total amino acids | 2389.71 | 1860.90 | 1434.25 |
Ammonia | 19.13 | 23.20 | 36.82 |
Contents 1 (mg/100 g) | Processing Stages 2 | ||
---|---|---|---|
Dried IESL | Sterilized IESL | Fermented IESL | |
Phosphorus (P) | 2.92 ± 0.02 b | 3.02 ± 0.03 b | 4.33 ± 0.04 a |
Sulfur (S) | 2.42 ± 0.03 c | 2.78 ± 0.04 b | 3.87 ± 0.03 a |
Potassium (K) | 19.96 ± 0.40 b | 20.23 ± 0.61 b | 26.44 ± 0.28 a |
Calcium (Ca) | 11.35 ± 0.17 c | 11.73 ± 0.29 b | 15.45 ± 0.37 a |
Magnesium (Mg) | 2.58 ± 0.13 b | 2.57 ± 0.13 b | 3.36 ± 0.17 a |
Iron (Fe) | 0.18 ± 0.00 b | 0.19 ± 0.01 b | 0.23 ± 0.01 a |
Zinc (Zn) | 0.07 ± 0.01 c | 0.08 ± 0.00 b | 0.10 ± 0.00 a |
Manganese (Mn) | 0.11 ± 0.01 b | 0.11 ± 0.00 b | 0.15 ± 0.00 a |
Aluminium (Al) | 0.23 ± 0.00 b | 0.24 ± 0.00 b | 0.30 ± 0.00 a |
Boron (B) | 0.09 ± 0.00 b | 0.10 ± 0.01 b | 0.13 ± 0.00 a |
Silicon (Si) | 0.07 ± 0.00 c | 0.26 ± 0.01 b | 0.39 ± 0.01 a |
Sodium (Na) | 0.32 ± 0.02 c | 0.41 ± 0.02 b | 0.57 ± 0.01 a |
Total | 40.30 | 41.72 | 55.32 |
Contents 1 (mg/100 g) | Processing Stages 2 | ||
---|---|---|---|
Dried IESL | Sterilized IESL | Fermented IESL | |
B2 (Riboflavin) | 0.4 ± 0.01 c | 1.3 ± 0.05 b | 10.8 ± 0.32 a |
B3 (Niacin) | 8.0 ± 0.29 c | 11.1 ± 0.45 b | 21.4 ± 0.85 a |
B5 (Pantothenic acid) | nd 3 | nd | nd |
B9 (Folic acid) | nd | nd | nd |
C (Ascorbic acid) | nd | nd | nd |
Total | 8.4 | 12.4 | 32.2 |
Contents 1 (μg/g) | Processing Stages 2 | ||
---|---|---|---|
Dried IESL | Sterilized IESL | Fermented IESL | |
Amino acids | |||
Alanine | 10.68 ± 0.56 a | 7.00 ± 0.65 b | 4.97 ± 0.23 c |
Valine | 11.35 ± 1.09 a | 5.42 ± 0.21 b | 5.42 ± 0.18 b |
Leucine | 5.34 ± 0.49 a | 2.91 ± 0.11 b | 2.91 ± 0.11 b |
Isoleucine | 5.33 ± 0.33 a | 2.57 ± 0.10 b | 2.57 ± 0.10 b |
Proline | 14.02 ± 0.68 a | 6.10 ± 0.24 b | 6.12 ± 0.26 b |
Serine | 3.70 ± 0.34 a | 1.74 ± 0.14 c | 1.79 ± 0.11 b |
Threonine | 2.12 ± 0.04 a | 1.29 ± 0.06 b | 1.12 ± 0.06 c |
Aspartic acid | 1.45 ± 0.05 a | 0.76 ± 0.04 b | 0.44 ± 0.04 c |
Pyroglutamic acid | 2.53 ± 0.16 a | 1.61 ± 0.10 b | 1.60 ± 0.08 b |
Phenylalanine | 3.57 ± 0.16 a | 1.48 ± 0.07 b | 1.45 ± 0.12 c |
Asparagine | 4.52 ± 0.35 a | 1.10 ± 0.05 b | 1.09 ± 0.06 b |
Total | 64.61 | 31.98 | 29.48 |
Organic acids | |||
Lactic acid | 6.67 ± 0.55 a | 6.28 ± 0.04 b | 5.96 ± 0.09 c |
Oxalic acid | 99.21 ± 7.19 c | 108.10 ± 7.01 b | 119.58 ± 7.50 a |
Malonic acid | 10.18 ± 0.52 a | 9.05 ± 0.53 b | 3.58 ± 0.14 c |
Succinic acid | 3.87 ± 0.14 a | 2.80 ± 0.11 b | 2.20 ± 0.04 c |
Fumaric acid | 1.70 ± 0.13 b | 2.07 ± 0.03 b | 1.01 ± 0.09 c |
Malic acid | 12.78 ± 0.07 a | 8.76 ± 0.51 b | 8.67 ± 0.53 b |
Cyanuric acid | 6.10 ± 0.14 c | 6.38 ± 0.56 b | 6.73 ± 0.56 a |
Glutamic acid | 1.04 ± 0.06 a | 0.37 ± 0.00 c | 0.39 ± 0.01 b |
Citric acid | 4.24 ± 0.18 a | 2.74 ± 0.20 c | 2.89 ± 0.17 b |
Total | 145.79 | 146.55 | 151.01 |
Carbohydrates | |||
Pinitol | 118.60 ± 7.12 a | 67.97 ± 4.13 b | 67.57 ± 4.59 c |
Fructose | 11.42 ± 0.74 c | 12.98 ± 0.96 a | 12.81 ± 0.90 b |
Glucose | 2.76 ± 0.24 c | 8.19 ± 0.51 a | 8.09 ± 0.66 b |
Myo-inositol | 1.80 ± 0.04 a | 1.36 ± 0.13 b | 1.35 ± 0.12 b |
Sucrose | 18.23 ± 0.53 a | 0.73 ± 0.00 b | 0.69 ± 0.06 c |
Total | 152.81 | 91.23 | 90.51 |
Fatty acids | |||
Myristic acid | 1.21 ± 0.05 a | 1.11 ± 0.09 b | 1.05 ± 0.10 b |
Palmitic acid | 66.30 ± 1.02 c | 75.17 ± 6.89 a | 74.39 ± 4.12 b |
Stearic acid | 78.99 ± 5.57 b | 80.26 ± 7.52 a | 77.97 ± 3.65 b |
Total | 146.5 | 156.54 | 153.41 |
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Cho, D.-Y.; Lee, H.-Y.; Jeong, J.-B.; Lee, J.-H.; Lee, G.-Y.; Jang, M.-Y.; Lee, J.-H.; Lee, J.-H.; Haque, M.A.; Cho, K.-M. Comprehensive Changes in Nutrient Constituents and Antioxidant Activity during Food Processing of Isoflavone-Enriched Soybean Leaf by Mycelia of Tricholoma matsutake. Fermentation 2023, 9, 677. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9070677
Cho D-Y, Lee H-Y, Jeong J-B, Lee J-H, Lee G-Y, Jang M-Y, Lee J-H, Lee J-H, Haque MA, Cho K-M. Comprehensive Changes in Nutrient Constituents and Antioxidant Activity during Food Processing of Isoflavone-Enriched Soybean Leaf by Mycelia of Tricholoma matsutake. Fermentation. 2023; 9(7):677. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9070677
Chicago/Turabian StyleCho, Du-Yong, Hee-Yul Lee, Jong-Bin Jeong, Ji-Ho Lee, Ga-Young Lee, Mu-Yeon Jang, Jin-Hwan Lee, Ji-Hyun Lee, Md. Azizul Haque, and Kye-Man Cho. 2023. "Comprehensive Changes in Nutrient Constituents and Antioxidant Activity during Food Processing of Isoflavone-Enriched Soybean Leaf by Mycelia of Tricholoma matsutake" Fermentation 9, no. 7: 677. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9070677