The Influence of Climatic Conditions Associated with Altitude on the Volatile Composition of Cabernet Sauvignon Wines from Argentina, Spain and Portugal
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Vineyard Conditions and Wines
- Wines from Argentina (AR): altitudes of 2400 m a.s.l. (AR-2400), 1200 m a.s.l. (AR-1200) and 900 m a.s.l. (AR-900);
- Wines from Portugal (PT): an altitude of 77 m a.s.l. (PT-77);
- Wines from Spain (SP): altitudes of 886 m a.s.l. (SP-886), 413 m a.s.l. (SP-413), 240 m a.s.l. (SP-240) and 155 m a.s.l. (SP-155).
2.2. Chemical Composition of Wines
2.3. Identification and Quantification of the Wines’ Volatile Compounds
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Climatic Characteristics of the Wine-Growing Regions
3.2. Chemical Parameters of Cabernet Sauvignon Wines
3.3. Total Volatile Composition of Cabernet Sauvignon Wines
3.4. Volatile Composition of Cabernet Sauvignon Wine
3.5. Cabernet Sauvignon Wine Volatiles by Individual Compounds
3.6. Correlation between the Wines’ Volatile Composition and Vineyards’ Altitude
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | Argentina (AR) | Spain (SP) | Portugal (PT) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Location | Jujuy | Mendoza-San Carlos | Mendoza-Ugarteche | Albacete | Navarra | Penedes | Lérida | Lisbon | ||
Altitude (m a.s.l.) | 2400 (AR-2400) | 1200 (AR-1200) | 900 (AR-900) | 866 (SP-866) | 413 (SP-413) | 240 (SP-240) | 155 (SP-155) | 77 (PT-77) | ||
Soil type | Sandy loam with gravel | Sandy loam | Sandy loam | Clay loam | Sandy loam | Clay loam | Gravels | Sandy loam | ||
Winkler Index | 1742 | 2048 | 1671 | 2063 | 1845 | 2297 | 2067 | 2064 | ||
III | IV | III | IV | III | V | IV | IV | |||
Huglin Index | 2248 | 3486 | 2285 | 2936 | 2550 | 3348 | 3145 | 2542 | ||
Temperate Warm | Very Warm | Temperate Warm | Warm | Warm | Very Warm | Very Warm | Warm | |||
Min Temperature (°C) | 6.9 | 10.2 | 9.2 | 14.3 | 9.0 | 14.6 | 10.6 | 10.9 | ||
Max Temperature (°C) | 22.1 | 24.7 | 23.5 | 20.5 | 21.4 | 22.4 | 22.1 | 22.3 | ||
Average Temperature (°C) | 14.5 | 17.5 | 16.3 | 8.2 | 15.2 | 18.5 | 16.3 | 16.6 | ||
Precipitation (mm) | 733 | 17 | 365 | 375 | 364 | 310 | 373 | 798 |
Country | Altitude | Density | Ethanol | Dry Matter | Glucose+Fructose | Total SO2 | Free SO2 | Lactic Acid | Total Acidity | Glycerol | pH |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(g/mL) | (% vol) | (g/L) | (g/L) | (mg/L) | (mg/L) | (g/L) | (g/L of TA) | (g/L) | |||
Argentina (AR) | AR-2400 | 0.993 | 12.5 ab | 29 ab | 0.1 | 34 | 3 | 1.6 | 5.4 a | 3.76 | |
Argentina (AR) | AR-1200 | 0.994 | 12.0 b | 31 ab | 0.1 | 65 | 8 | 1.0 | 4.6 b | 7.7 | 3.63 |
Argentina (AR) | AR-900 | 0.993 | 12.6 ab | 30 ab | 0.2 | 57 | 14 | 1.3 | 4.9 ab | 7.6 | 3.73 |
Spain (SP) | SP-886 | 0.993 | 12.5 ab | 28 ab | 0.3 | 66 | 20 | 1.0 | 5.5 a | 6.2 | 3.51 |
Spain (SP) | SP-413 | 0.992 | 12.4 ab | 24 b | 0.3 | 28 | 1 | 0.6 | 4.9 ab | 7.6 | 3.40 |
Spain (SP) | SP-240 | 0.994 | 12.6 ab | 34 ab | 0.3 | 45 | 18 | 0.6 | 4.6 b | 6.3 | 3.46 |
Spain (SP) | SP-155 | 0.994 | 12.7 ab | 34 ab | 0.4 | 70 | 20 | 0.6 | 4.8 ab | 7.0 | 3.41 |
Portugal (PT) | PT-77 | 0.992 | 12.7 ab | 25 ab | 0.1 | 35 | 7 | 1.0 | 4.8 ab | 7.4 | 3.70 |
Sig. A | ns | * | * | ns | ns | ns | ns | ** | ns | ns | |
Sig. C | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns |
Volatile Group | Argentina | Spain | Portugal | Sig. A | AR | SP | PT | Sig. C | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AR-2400 | AR-1200 | AR-900 | SP-886 | SP-413 | SP-240 | SP-155 | PT-77 | ||||||
Acetates | 652.8 d | 449.1 f | 421.9 f | 900.7 a | 721.2 c | 842.0 b | 647.3 d | 563.0 e | *** | 507.9 b | 781.6 a | 563.0 b | *** |
Volatile Acids | 1743.7 a | 770.1 e | 1135.7 cd | 1545.3 b | 1233.5 c | 1035.7 d | 1209.7 c | 1403.7 b | *** | 1216.5 | 1134.6 | 1403.7 | ns |
Alcohols | 27,226.1 d | 32,566.6 bc | 28,056.3 d | 29,865.3 cd | 34,512.3 ab | 29,805.5 cd | 34,680.8 ab | 36,807.9 a | *** | 29,283.0 b | 32,158.9 b | 38,807.9 a | *** |
C6 compounds | 875.6 a | 526.1 d | 706.4 b | 537.3 d | 816.2 a | 449.8 e | 235.2 f | 612.5 c | *** | 702.7 | 633.0 | 612.5 | ns |
Aldehydes | 164.5 a | 145.6 b | 77.2 cd | 13.8 e | 31.5 d | 33.7 d | 14.6 e | 18.9 e | *** | 129.1 a | 32.6 b | 18.9 b | *** |
Esteres | 6314.3 a | 3378.6 c | 3868.6 b | 2863.2 de | 2567.7 ef | 2406.8 f | 2284.3 f | 3109.3 cd | *** | 4520.5 a | 2487.2 b | 3109.3 ab | ** |
Lactones | 590.1 b | 324.1 cd | 481.8 bc | 315.1 d | 377.0 cd | 242.4 d | 370.1 cd | 1959.6 a | *** | 465.3 b | 309.7 c | 1959.6 a | *** |
Volatile Phenols | 820.1 c | 1081.6 ab | 638.4 d | 1163.2 a | 678.7 cd | 972.3 b | 1042.4 ab | 819.2 c | *** | 846.7 | 825.5 | 819.2 | ns |
Terpenes | 300.4 a | 96.2 c | 101.9 cd | 183.5 b | 42.1 e | 72.9 d | 37.7 e | 88.4 cd | *** | 166.2 | 57.5 | 88.4 | ns |
Carbonyl compounds | 160.0 c | 21.3 e | 87.5 d | 383.8 a | 15.5 e | 207.5 b | 160.1 c | 16.6 e | *** | 89.6 ab | 111.5 a | 16.6 b | * |
Volatile Compouds | Altitud (A) | Sig. A | Country (C) | Sig. C | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AR-2400 | AR-1200 | AR-900 | SP-886 | SP-413 | SP-240 | SP-155 | PT-77 | Argentina (AR) | Spain (SP) | Portugal (PT) | |||
Isoamyl acetate | 238.1 e | 214.2 e | 219.4 e | 599.6 a | 448.3 c | 538.8 b | 417.3 c | 295.7 d | *** | 223.9 b | 501.0 a | 295.7 b | *** |
Phenylethyl acetate | 73.8 e | 67.9 e | 67.4 e | 174.1 a | 98.5 d | 160.8 b | 119.2 c | 120.6 c | *** | 69.7 b | 138.1 a | 120.6 a | *** |
Diethyl malate | 340.9 a | 167.0 bc | 135.1 de | 127.0 de | 174.4 b | 142.3 cd | 110.7 e | 146.6 cd | *** | 214.3 a | 138.6 b | 146.6 ab | * |
Isobutanoic acid | 54.3 c | 71.1 a | 55.0 c | 63.5 b | 73.3 a | 38.1 d | 42.7 d | 67.1 ab | *** | 60.1 | 54.4 | 67.1 | ns |
Butyric acid | 23.0 ab | 17.8 cd | 25.8 a | 22.7 ab | 25.9 a | 14.1 e | 15.6 de | 19.6 bc | *** | 22.2 | 19.6 | 19.6 | ns |
2+3-methylbutyric acid | 115.3 d | 204.0 c | 293.2 b | 175.1 c | 328.0 a | 136.4 d | 142.7 d | 337.1 a | *** | 204.2 b | 195.6 b | 337.1 a | * |
Hexanoic acid | 405.1 a | 246.1 c | 385.5 a | 387.4 a | 413.8 a | 251.9 bc | 295.1 b | 389.2 a | *** | 345.6 | 337.0 | 389.2 | ns |
Octanoic acid | 425.9 c | 208.0 e | 327.2 d | 664.6 a | 322.3 d | 474.2 bc | 518.3 b | 463.1 c | *** | 320.4 a | 494.8 a | 463.1 ab | ** |
Decanoic acid | 25.4 f | 23.0 f | 49.0 e | 232.0 a | 70.3 d | 121.0 c | 195.3 b | 127.5 c | *** | 32.5 b | 154.6 a | 127.5 a | *** |
Octadecanoic acid | 694.8 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 694.8 | - | - | - |
Isobututyl alcohol | 751.4 ab | 746.0 ab | 549.9 c | 720.5 b | 787.3 ab | 527.1 c | 836.7 a | 501.1 c | *** | 682.4 ab | 717.9 a | 501.1 b | * |
1-butanol | 44.1 b | 64.3 a | 65.2 a | 34.1 c | 45.6 b | 39.7 bc | 24.9 d | 34.1 c | *** | 57.9 a | 36.1 b | 34.1 b | *** |
Isoamyl alcohol | 9196.2 bc | 9123.9 bc | 8609.7 c | 8597.5 c | 11,532.2 a | 8311.3 c | 10,315.9 ab | 9194.8 bc | *** | 8976.6 | 9689.2 | 9194.8 | ns |
3-methyl-1-pentanol | 35.6 cd | 39.2 bc | 38.4 bc | 37.2 bc | 55.3 a | 35.0 cd | 32.0 d | 41.3 b | *** | 37.7 | 39.9 | 41.3 | ns |
2.3 butanediol | 36.3 b | 36.7 b | 54.8 a | 34.4 b | 49.5 a | 22.5 c | 27.5 bc | 57.1 a | *** | 42.6 ab | 33.5 b | 57.1 a | ** |
Methionol | 146.3 b | 220.2 a | 207.6 a | 54.6 d | 95.3 c | 97.6 c | 118.7 bc | 109.1 c | *** | 191.4 a | 91.5 b | 109.1 b | *** |
Benzyl alcohol | 442.1 a | 135.2 cd | 255.6 b | 162.0 c | 99.6 de | 121.3 de | 86.9 e | 441.9 a | *** | 277.6 b | 117.4 c | 441.9 a | *** |
Phenylethyl alcohol | 16,574.1 e | 22,201.0 bc | 18,275.2 de | 20,225.1 cd | 21,847.3 bc | 20,651.2 bcd | 23,238.3 b | 26,428.4 a | *** | 19,016.8 c | 21,490.5 b | 26,428.4 a | *** |
1-hexanol | 838.0 a | 505.0 cd | 675.0 b | 477.8 d | 789.8 a | 409.9 e | 224.8 f | 571.5 c | *** | 672.7 | 475.6 | 571.5 | ns |
Trans-3-hexen-1-ol | 16.7 bc | 12.1 e | 15.4 cd | 19.2 a | 17.6 b | 15.1 d | 6.2 f | 13.2 e | *** | 14.7 | 14.5 | 13.2 | ns |
Cis-3-hexen-1-ol | 15.5 c | 9.0 d | 13.6 c | 40.2 a | 8.8 d | 24.9 b | 4.3 e | 23.7 b | *** | 12.7 | 19.5 | 23.7 | ns |
Trans-2-hexen-1-ol | 5.5 a | - | 2.4 b | - | - | - | - | 4.2 a | *** | 3.9 | - | 4.2 | ns |
Furfural | 160.7 a | 110.3 b | 74.9 c | 10.4 e | 26.7 d | 29.7 d | 11.7 e | 13.7 e | *** | 115.3 a | 19.6 b | 13.7 b | *** |
Benzaldehyde | 3.9 cd | 35.3 a | 2.3 f | 3.4 de | 4.8 b | 4.0 c | 2.9 ef | 5.1 b | *** | 13.8 | 3.7 | 5.1 | ns |
Ethyl butyrate | 121.1 a | 83.4 d | 111.9 ab | 117.1 a | 121.1 a | 91.7 cd | 100.9 bc | 71.8 e | *** | 105.5 a | 107.7 a | 71.8 b | ** |
Ethyl 2-methylbutyrate | 20.0 d | 30.1 b | 35.4 a | 10.1 f | 18.8 d | 13.2 e | 7.8 g | 22.8 c | *** | 28.5 a | 12.5 b | 22.8 a | *** |
Ethyl-3-methylbutyrate | 42.5 c | 50.8 b | 62.2 a | 21.5 e | 46.4 bc | 28.0 d | 19.0 e | 31.8 d | *** | 51.9 a | 28.7 b | 31.8 b | *** |
Ethyl hexanoate | 307.9 a | 145.9 e | 293.8 a | 291.4 a | 274.6 ab | 182.1 de | 208.5 cd | 241.1 bc | *** | 249.2 | 239.2 | 241.1 | ns |
Hexyl acetate | - | - | - | 4.6 | 1.8 | 3.6 | - | - | ns | - | 3.3 | - | - |
Ethyl lactate | 4442.7 a | 2306.6 b | 2418.7 b | 1737.2 c | 1527.3 cd | 1532.0 cd | 1352.1 d | 1769.3 c | *** | 3056.0 a | 1537.2 b | 1769.3 b | *** |
Ethyl octanoate | 153.4 ab | 98.2 bc | 144.7 abc | 202.7 a | 82.3 c | 102.8 bc | 135.4 abc | 192.4 a | *** | 132.1 | 130.8 | 192.4 | ns |
Ethyl β-hydroxybutyrate | 120.2 a | 51.1 cd | 51.7 cd | 45.6 de | 66.6 b | 57.6 c | 72.6 b | 42.6 e | *** | 74.3 | 60.6 | 42.6 | ns |
Isoamyl lactate | 333.3 a | 140.1 bc | 177.7 b | 90.6 d | 100.3 cd | 87.1 d | 78.7 d | 101.2 cd | *** | 217.0 a | 89.2 b | 101.2 b | *** |
Ethyl methyl succinate | 181.4 a | 82.1 b | 77.2 b | 48.6 cd | 24.9 e | 55.0 c | 34.8 de | 27.9 e | *** | 113.6 a | 40.9 b | 27.9 b | *** |
Ethyl decanoate | 6.0 d | 12.0 c | 15.9 b | 11.9 c | 5.9 d | 3.9 d | 7.3 d | 31.5 a | *** | 11.3 b | 7.3 b | 31.5 a | *** |
Methyl vanillate | 44.1 a | 19.0 b | 19.2 b | 17.6 b | 11.6 c | 16.8 b | 11.0 c | 18.0 b | *** | 27.4 a | 14.2 b | 18.0 ab | *** |
Ethyl vanillate | 541.6 a | 359.4 c | 460.2 b | 264.1 de | 285.9 d | 233.0 e | 256.1 de | 559.0 a | *** | 453.8 b | 259.8 c | 559.0 a | *** |
γ-butyrolactone | 561.3 b | 295.1 d | 460.0 bc | 275.2 d | 354.9 cd | 231.4 d | 343.6 cd | 1936.3 a | *** | 438.8 b | 301.3 c | 1936.3 a | *** |
Whiskey lactone (trans) | 17.5 b | 6.2 c | 4.8 c | 18.1 a | - | - | - | - | *** | 9.5 | 18.1 | - | ns |
γ-Nonalactone | 11.3 d | 22.8 b | 16.9 c | 21.7 b | 22.0 b | 11.0 d | 26.6 a | 23.3 b | *** | 17.0 | 20.3 | 23.3 | ns |
Guaiacol | 10.6 a | 10.2 a | 7.9 bc | 7.4 c | 4.9 d | 7.0 c | 6.3 cd | 9.6 ab | *** | 9.6 a | 6.4 b | 9.6 a | *** |
4-Ethylguaiacol | - | 74.9 | - | - | - | - | - | 6.5 | ns | 74.9 | - | 6.5 | ns |
4-Ethylphenol | 8.5 | 221.5 | - | - | - | 3.8 | 5.8 | 19.0 | ns | 115.0 | 4.8 | 19.0 | ns |
2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol | 37.2 d | 18.4 e | 27.7 de | 116.9 a | 26.1 de | 86.1 b | 37.0 d | 63.0 c | *** | 27.8 b | 66.5 a | 63.0 ab | * |
2.6-Dimethoxyphenol | 52.4 b | 50.0 bc | 41.5 c | 56.1 b | 50.1 bc | 52.2 b | 47.4 bc | 70.2 a | *** | 48.0 b | 51.5 b | 70.2 a | *** |
4-2-Hydroxyethylphenol | 662.1 bc | 642.3 c | 488.7 d | 939.0 a | 575.5 cd | 774.0 b | 918.2 a | 617.9 c | *** | 597.7 b | 801.6 a | 617.9 ab | ** |
3.4.5-Trimethoxyphenol | 49.4 c | 64.4 b | 72.5 a | 43.9 c | 22.3 e | 49.2 c | 27.7 de | 33.1 d | *** | 62.1 a | 35.8 b | 33.1 b | *** |
3-Oxo-α-ionol | 122.9 b | 81.4 d | 93.1 c | 173.3 a | 39.8 f | 65.7 e | 27.5 g | 82.9 d | *** | 99.1 | 76.6 | 82.9 | ns |
Cis-furan linalool oxide | 145.5 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 145.5 | - | - | - |
Trans-furan linalool oxide | 16.9 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 16.9 | - | - | - |
4-Terpineol | - | - | - | - | - | 1.5 | - | - | - | - | 1.5 | - | - |
α-terpineol | 11.4 | 9.2 | 8.8 | 5.2 | 2.3 | 5.8 | 10.2 | 5.5 | ns | 9.8 | 5.9 | 5.5 | ns |
Trans-pyan linalol oxide | 3.6 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 3.6 | - | - | - |
Cis-pyan linalol oxide | - | 5.6 | - | 5.0 | - | - | - | - | ns | 5.6 | 5.0 | - | ns |
Acetoina | 160.0 c | 21.3 e | 87.5 d | 383.8 a | 15.5 e | 207.5 b | 160.1 c | 16.6 e | *** | 89.6 ab | 191.8 a | 16.6 b | * |
Volatile Compound | Altitude | Average Temp | Max Temp | Min Temp | Rainfall |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Isoamyl acetate | −0.454 | 0.052 | −0.747 | 0.770 | −0.258 |
Phenylethyl acetate | −0.499 | 0.388 | −0.671 | 0.886 | −0.048 |
Diethyl malate | 0.846 | −0.444 | 0.000 | −0.643 | 0.502 |
Octanoic acid | −0.198 | 0.188 | −0.791 | 0.572 | 0.276 |
Octadecanoic acid | 0.818 | −0.444 | −0.084 | −0.567 | 0.539 |
1-butanol | 0.395 | −0.234 | 0.728 | −0.366 | −0.374 |
Methionol | 0.375 | −0.174 | 0.911 | −0.530 | −0.228 |
Benzyl alcohol | 0.436 | 0.278 | 0.019 | −0.437 | 0.896 |
Phenylethyl alcohol | −0.733 | 0.716 | 0.019 | 0.270 | 0.089 |
Trans-2-hexen-1-ol | 0.514 | 0.097 | 0.044 | −0.578 | 0.881 |
Furfural | 0.908 | −0.471 | 0.500 | −0.660 | 0.135 |
Benzaldehyde | 0.202 | 0.079 | 0.719 | −0.079 | −0.455 |
Ethyl butyrate | 0.455 | −0.838 | −0.488 | −0.295 | −0.072 |
Ethyl 2-methylbutyrate | 0.287 | 0.038 | 0.743 | −0.492 | −0.027 |
Hexyl acetate | −0.214 | 0.044 | −0.615 | 0.789 | −0.308 |
Ethyl lactate | 0.938 | −0.425 | 0.184 | −0.649 | 0.450 |
Isoamyl lactate | 0.908 | −0.479 | 0.182 | −0.702 | 0.442 |
Ethyl methyl succinate | 0.944 | −0.484 | 0.224 | −0.536 | 0.297 |
Ethyl decanoate | −0.278 | 0.778 | 0.146 | −0.003 | 0.503 |
Methyl vanillate | 0.891 | −0.310 | 0.058 | −0.502 | 0.539 |
Ethyl vanillate | 0.441 | 0.217 | 0.273 | −0.616 | 0.764 |
γ-butyrolactone | −0.238 | 0.743 | −0.009 | −0.132 | 0.775 |
Whiskey lactone (trans) | 0.792 | −0.367 | −0.272 | −0.084 | 0.178 |
4-Ethylguaiacol | 0.188 | 0.117 | 0.744 | −0.077 | −0.438 |
4-Ethylphenol | 0.210 | 0.098 | 0.747 | −0.091 | −0.430 |
2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol | −0.222 | 0.394 | −0.628 | 0.824 | 0.089 |
2.6-Dimethoxyphenol | −0.218 | 0.733 | −0.285 | 0.235 | 0.613 |
Cis-furan linalool oxide | 0.845 | −0.458 | −0.087 | −0.585 | 0.556 |
Trans-furan linalool oxide | 0.848 | −0.460 | −0.087 | −0.587 | 0.558 |
Trans-piyan linalool oxide | 0.848 | −0.460 | −0.087 | −0.587 | 0.558 |
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Deis, L.; Martínez, L.; da Costa, B.S.; Vilanova, M. The Influence of Climatic Conditions Associated with Altitude on the Volatile Composition of Cabernet Sauvignon Wines from Argentina, Spain and Portugal. Horticulturae 2024, 10, 870. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10080870
Deis L, Martínez L, da Costa BS, Vilanova M. The Influence of Climatic Conditions Associated with Altitude on the Volatile Composition of Cabernet Sauvignon Wines from Argentina, Spain and Portugal. Horticulturae. 2024; 10(8):870. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10080870
Chicago/Turabian StyleDeis, Leonor, Liliana Martínez, Bianca S. da Costa, and Mar Vilanova. 2024. "The Influence of Climatic Conditions Associated with Altitude on the Volatile Composition of Cabernet Sauvignon Wines from Argentina, Spain and Portugal" Horticulturae 10, no. 8: 870. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10080870