Whakapapa, Mauritau, and Placefulness to Decolonise Indigenous Minds

Abstract

This article explores the relationship between genealogy and the environment as a pathway towards decolonising indigenous minds. In Māori worldviews, everything is categorised, organised, and understood through whakapapa, or genealogy. Whakapapa resides within the land and water, safeguarding ancestral stories as they weave through time, space, and place. The environment serves as a powerful tool for maintaining, reclaiming, and reinforcing indigeneity. Strengthening the connections between whakapapa and the environment offers significant avenues for decolonising Indigenous minds, by recalibrating and releasing colonised ways of being to embody mauritau (mindfulness) through whenua kura (placefulness). Unlike Cartesian dualism, which separates the body and mind, the Māori conception of the mind is multifaceted and embodied. The mind is thought to be situated in the solar plexus, emotions in the gut, and connection to spirit in the head, all of which are deeply rooted in whakapapa and the enduring ties to ancestors and place. Whakapapa’s connections to the land, water, animals, and spiritual entities are imbued with narratives that aid in recollection and provide profound cultural context to place. These narratives offer pathways for communion with the land and water, enabling sensitivity to environmental cues, such as changing seasons, solstices, moon phases, star cycles, and natural rhythms within our inner landscapes of body, heart, and mind, fostering a sense of placefulness.

1. Introduction

The relationship between genealogy and the environment in Māori culture is profound and multifaceted, offering a powerful pathway towards the decolonisation of Indigenous minds. Central to Māori worldviews are the concept of whakapapa, which encompasses genealogy and lineage, categorising and organising everything within the universe. Whakapapa is deeply embedded in the land and water, preserving ancestral stories and weaving through time, space, and place. This intrinsic connection to the environment serves not only as a repository of cultural heritage but also as a dynamic tool for maintaining, reclaiming, and reinforcing indigeneity.

In the face of colonisation, the bonds between whakapapa and the environment have been strained but not severed. Strengthening these connections is crucial for decolonising Indigenous minds. This involves recalibrating and releasing colonised ways of being to embody mauritau (mindfulness) through whenua kura (placefulness), a state of balanced well-being deeply rooted in one’s genealogical ties to the land. Unlike Cartesian dualism, which separates the body and mind, the Māori conception of the mind is holistic and embodied, intertwining the mind, emotions, and spirit with the physical landscape and ancestral heritage.

This article explores the potential of whakapapa and placefulness in fostering a sense of belonging and stewardship towards the environment. By recognising and revitalising traditional Māori knowledge systems, we can develop pathways for communion with the land and water, enhancing sensitivity to environmental cues such as changing seasons, solstices, moon phases, star cycles, and natural rhythms. These narratives, embedded in the land, offer profound cultural contexts that foster a sense of placefulness and support the decolonisation process.

For the purpose of this article, decolonisation refers to the process of dismantling colonial systems and ideologies that have historically imposed foreign control and dominance over Indigenous peoples and their lands (Durrheim 2024; Hoskins and Jones 2022; Huygens 2006; Ritenburg et al. 2014; Vidal Torrecilla et al. 2024). It involves the reclamation and revitalisation of Indigenous knowledge, languages, and cultural practices, allowing communities to restore their autonomy and self-determination. This process seeks to challenge and rectify the legacies of colonialism, fostering a more equitable and culturally respectful environment that honours and integrates the values and traditions of the colonised societies.

By navigating through themes such as whakapapa, te taiao (the environment), and the decolonisation of time and place, this article aims to illuminate the intricate relationships that sustain Māori consciousness and identity. The goal is to offer a framework that not only challenges dominant discourses but also nurtures a profound connection to ancestral knowledge, thereby empowering Māori communities to reclaim and celebrate their cultural heritage.

2. Kaupapa Māori Research

This paper embodies Kaupapa Māori research principles that prioritise and advocate for Māori worldviews in research. Kaupapa Māori research centres Tikanga Māori (Māori values and knowledge systems) in its design (Bishop 1995; G. H. Smith 1990, 1997, 2003; L. T. Smith 2021), allowing Māori researchers and participants to find their place within the research. This methodology prioritises positive outcomes for Māori whānau (families), making it ideal for exploring whakapapa (genealogy), placefulness, and decolonising the mind.

G. H. Smith (1997) underscores how Kaupapa Māori theory critiques and reconstitutes notions of conscientisation and transformative praxis, adapting them to diverse settings. As a Kaupapa Māori researcher, this involves configuring theory and practice to decolonise and empower Māori communities.

Aligning with this project’s focus on integrating whakapapa (genealogy), placefulness, and decolonising the mind, a Kaupapa Māori approach provides a framework that prioritises Māori worldviews. This methodology not only challenges dominant discourses that marginalise Māori but also nurtures a profound connection to ancestral knowledge embedded in the land and water, drawing on Tikanga Māori as guiding principles (Pihama 2001; Pohatu 1995; G. H. Smith 1997).

Organic and adaptable (G. H. Smith 1997), Kaupapa Māori research tailors methodologies to address research challenges. Lee (2008) describes this as the work of an Indigenous bricoleur, where methods are shaped by the research context, often necessitating a multi-method or innovative approach. To this end, I turn now to a critique of ways that Western metaphysics have been normalised in colonised societies, namely Cartesian dualism, time, and place. Next, I highlight the transformative potential of an alternative approach that centres Indigenous and te ao Māori concepts for decolonising Indigenous minds.

3. The Māori Mind: Dismantling Cartesian Dualism

Cartesian dualism, attributed to René Descartes, posits a fundamental separation between the mind (or soul) and the body (Baker and Morris 1995; Descartes 2022). From a critical perspective influenced by an Indigenous decolonial lens, Cartesian dualism is viewed as problematic and Eurocentric (Derksen 1998; Mehta 2011; Turner 2008). It perpetuates a worldview that separates human beings from nature and reinforces hierarchies that devalue Indigenous knowledge systems.

In Indigenous decolonial thought, there is often an emphasis on interconnectedness—between humans and their environment, and between different aspects of existence (spiritual, physical, and natural) (Barlow 1991; Marsden 2003; Mead 2003). Cartesian dualism, with its emphasis on mind–body separation, has historically marginalised Indigenous ways of knowing that integrate spirituality, land, and community into holistic worldviews. For this article, the constraints of the term mind are acknowledged, and the terms mind and soul are synonymous here.

Critically, Cartesian dualism has been seen to support colonial projects by legitimising the dominance of Western scientific and philosophical frameworks over Indigenous knowledge. By contrast, Indigenous decolonial perspectives advocate for the recognition and revitalisation of traditional knowledge systems that emphasise relationality, reciprocity, and respect for the interconnectedness of all life forms.

Overall, from an Indigenous decolonial perspective, Cartesian dualism is critiqued for reinforcing Western hegemony, undermining Indigenous epistemologies, and perpetuating worldviews that prioritise mechanistic views of nature over holistic and relational ways of being.

The Māori perspective contrasts acutely with Cartesian dualism, as the Māori mind is intricately embedded within the geography of the body. According to Māori belief, emotions emanate from the stomach, highlighting this deep connection. In historical oral traditions that I have encountered, the connection to spirit is situated in the head, emphasising the sanctity of the head. The stomach’s role in emotions is evident through the physical sensations experienced during strong emotions such as love, envy, and fury, which can literally make us feel sick to our stomach. Additionally, thoughts are thought to reside in the solar plexus, at the junction between the stomach, the centre of emotional intelligence, and the head, the location of spiritual intelligence.

Decolonising the Māori mind involves moving away from colonising concepts like Cartesian dualism, creating space for healing and reclaiming Indigenous perspectives. This process invites us to reconnect with the nurturing and grounding essence of whakapapa (genealogy). By embracing the embodied landscapes of the Māori mind, we begin to understand that our identities and connections extend beyond our essential bodies into the natural environment (taiao). This approach encourages us to reconsider not only physical spaces but also how we perceive time.

4. Decolonising Time to Decolonise Place

Time is colonisable. Awatere (1984) insightfully discusses this point when she describes how time has long been used as a sharp and highly effective colonising tool. She explains how, through colonisation, time has been ‘collapsed into space’ and ‘measured and quantified’ through a Eurocentric lens (pp. 61–62). This shift detached time from its cyclic rhythm in nature and the ancestral rhythms of life and death. The result of this colonising compression of time and space is the systematic reduction in traditional knowledge bases and their commodification to benefit the colonial capitalist project (p. 63). For Māori, time is considered cyclical, encompassing the past, present, and future simultaneously (Awatere 1984; Best 1922; Shirres 1986; Walker 1982).

Ranginui Walker (1982) describes time from the Māori worldviews as follows:

‘So the Maori faces the present and the past which are in front of him. In this timeframe he has before him the living, their forebears, the dead, the founding ancestors, the cultural heroes of mythology and the gods back to the primeval pair Ranginui and Papatūānuku. This timeframe is the basis of marae protocol…’.

(pp. 59–60)

Through this quote by Ranginui Walker, we see the intricate connection between time and place (Ranginui the sky father and Papatūānuku the earth mother). Ancestors, genealogy, time, stories, land, waterways, and our pūrākau (traditional stories) occupy the very same time.

From a Eurocentric standpoint, time is regulated by clocks and the Gregorian solar calendar. Conversely, for Māori, time is aligned with kaupapa (events) and involves a complex intellectual interpretation of solar, lunar, stellar, and environmental signals that collectively indicate the cycles of time. This knowledge of celestial signs is embedded in whakapapa (genealogy) and transmitted through storytelling. As an example of this, the changes in seasons are signified by signs in the environment such as the knowledge that when the Pohutukawa are flowering the kina (sea urchins) are fat. These markers of the passing of time are not linked to a clock or an arbitrary calendar superimposed upon the environment in a mismatched geographical context but reflect the deep observation of te taiao (the natural world).

These precious Indigenous knowledge bases have been largely degraded, but courageous knowledge holders such as Professor Rangi Mātāmua, who revitalised traditional knowledge on Matariki (which marks the changing of the year for Māori), and Rereata Makiha, who has dedicated his life to disseminating understanding of the maramataka (lunar calendar), have worked to preserve and revitalise these traditions (Matamua 2017; Warbrick et al. 2023).

One of the most salient benefits of decolonising Māori time is the profound reconciliation it offers between the Māori mind and place and the access it provides to the genealogical wealth inherent in Māori worldviews. By reclaiming and honouring traditional Māori concepts of time, such as the maramataka (lunar calendar) and the seasonal markers like Matariki, Māori communities reconnect with their ancestral rhythms and cyclical understandings of existence. This reconciliation fosters a deep sense of belonging and continuity, aligning personal and collective identities with the natural and spiritual landscapes that define Māori culture. It provides a holistic framework where time becomes not just a measure but a narrative thread that weaves together the past, present, and future, rooted in whakapapa (genealogy) and sustained through cultural practices and storytelling traditions.

Decolonising Māori time thus becomes a transformative process that empowers communities to reclaim their heritage, revitalise traditional knowledge systems, and strengthen their resilience against ongoing challenges. It reaffirms the interconnectedness between individuals, their environment, and their cultural heritage, offering a salient pathway towards cultural revitalisation and self-determination in a contemporary world.

5. Whakapapa (Genealogy) through a Māori Lens

For Māori, whakapapa forms the foundational framework for organising and expressing knowledge across all aspects of the universe, encompassing the ancestral lineage of all things (Barlow 1991, p. 173). According to Burgess and Koroi (2024), ‘whakapapa forms the foundation of our worlds as Māori, allowing us to understand and live well in the world intergenerationally. Whakapapa is the basis of our ways of being, knowing and doing’ (Burgess and Koroi 2024, p. 12).

Whakapapa intricately catalogues relationships within the natural world, including humanity, and underpins the Māori conception of the universe. This taxonomical understanding extends to plants, stars, and people (Barlow 1991; Marsden 2003; Mead 2003). Walker (1993) succinctly captures this idea, describing whakapapa as ‘…embodied in the sequence of myths, traditions, and tribal histories that trace the genesis of human beings from the creation of the universe’ (p. 1).

Whakapapa not only serves as a lineage model for comprehending the universe but also forms the basis of kinship and tribal identity for Māori. Ngata (1972) elucidates this concept: ‘Whakapapa is the process of laying one thing upon another. If you visualise the foundation ancestors as the first generation, the next and succeeding ancestors are placed on them in ordered layers’ (p. 6). Ranginui Walker similarly emphasises the continuity of whakapapa, linking distant Polynesian ancestors to present-day Māori in Aotearoa New Zealand (Walker 1993, p. 1).

Ballara (1991) discusses mnemonic techniques employed by tohunga (expert healers and sacred knowledge holders), who used metric patterns and changes in intonation akin to waiata (songs) to aid memory across generations (pp. 550–51). Walker (1993) further highlights the significance of whakapapa in the Māori worldviews, describing it as ‘a comprehensible paradigm of reality, capable of being stored in the human mind and transmitted orally from one generation to the next’ (p. 16). This oral transmission is embodied through the recitation of whakapapa and pūrākau (traditional stories).

An example of this oral tradition is found in the following karakia (incantation), which draws on the genealogy of creation and humanity. The karakia below intricately and rhythmically presents the unfolding of creation, using metaphors of plant growth and childbirth to describe the beginning of the universe. It begins with the creator and progresses through metaphors of plant growth, and then moves to the primordial parents who embody the natural world, culminating in the emergence of humanity and the transition from the great night to the world of light through birth:

E Io

Ko te pū

Ko te more

Ko te weu

Ko te aka

Ko te reo

Ko te waonui

Ko te pō

Ko Ranginui e tū nei

Ko Papatūānuku e takoto nei

Ka puta te ira tangata

Ki te whaiao ki te ao mārama

Tūturu āwhiti whakamau ai kia tina

Haumi e

Hui e

Tāiki e

This karakia expresses whakapapa through mnemonic, rhythmic recitation, vividly illustrating the interconnected Māori worldviews that links the creator, environment, celestial beings, and humanity within a cohesive narrative.

Overall, whakapapa is deeply embedded within Māori oral traditions, reinforcing cultural identity, and transmitting ancestral knowledge. Whakapapa functions as a potent tool within te ao Māori for establishing causation, understanding phenomena, and deriving solutions. Sadler (2014) exemplifies this with the Ngāpuhi tribe’s narrative of sacred waves—Ngaru Nui, Ngaru Roa, and Ngarupaewhenua—that trace ancestral histories linked intimately with the environment (Angeli-Gordon 2023; Sadler 2014). This narrative framework of whakapapa not only connects tribal histories but also embodies a deep cultural memory and mnemonic tradition essential for cultural continuity (Ballara 1991, pp. 550–51).

In essence, whakapapa provides a conceptual framework deeply embedded in the Māori psyche, shaping how knowledge is held within the somatic geography of humanity. It represents a distinctly Māori way of understanding the world and offers a pathway towards decolonising the Indigenous mind, fostering reconciliation with the natural world.

6. The Natural World (Te Taiao) through a Māori Lens

Central to the understanding of whakapapa and placefulness in decolonising Indigenous minds is the inseparability of land and identity in mātauranga Māori. Land is not merely a physical space but a living entity that shapes the contours of language, culture, and identity. The peaks and valleys of ancestral tribal lands are etched with stories and histories that connect people to their environment. This deep connection is vividly captured in the whakataukī (proverbs) and pepeha (tribal geography narratives) associated with iwi (Māori tribes).

For instance, the tribal narrative from Ngāpuhi, recounted below, outlines the mountains within their tribal lands, connecting these features to the people who occupy them:

He mea hanga tōku whare, ko Papatūānuku te paparahi Ko ngā maunga ngā poupou, ko Ranginui e titiro iho nei, te tuanui Pūhanga-tohora titiro ki Te Ramaroa e whakaurupaeake rā i te Hauāuru Whiria titiro ki Whīria, te Paiaka o te riri, te kawa o Rāhiri. Whīria titiro ki Pānguru, ki Papata, ki te rākau tū papata ki te tai Hauāuru; Pānguru, Papata titiro ki Maungataniwha. Maungataniwha titiro ki Tokerau Tokerau titiro ki Rākaumangamanga Rākaumangamanga titiro ki Manaia, e tū kohatu mai rā i te akau. Manaia titiro ki Tutamoe Tutamoe titiro ki Maunganui Maunganui titiro ki Pūhanga-tohora Ehara aku maunga i te maunga nekeneke, he maunga tū tonu, tū te Ao, tū te pō. Ko te Whare Tapu o Ngāpuhi tēnei, tīhei mauri ora.

(Te Rūnanga o Ngāpuhi 2019)

This narrative not only provides a geographical map of Ngāpuhi’s ancestral lands but also embeds the cultural and historical significance of these places, reinforcing the deep bond between people and land.

One of my very favourite books, Rainbow Spirit Theology which works towards an Australian Aboriginal Theology, explores this interconnectedness of land, spirituality, and humanity. Many of the insights from this book resonate with mātauranga Māori, reflecting a shared understanding of the intrinsic value of the environment. For example:

‘Specific areas of land are entrusted into the care of the land, its laws, its stories, its resources, its families, its ceremonies, and its sacred sites’.

(p. 37)

And similarly,

‘The land is a living place made up of sky, clouds, rivers, trees, the wind, the sand; and the Spirit has planted my own spirit there, in my own country. It is something—and yet it is not a thing—it is a living entity. It belongs to me, I belong to it. I rest in it. I come from there’.

(p. 32)

For any authentic expressions of whenua kura and mauritau that draw on Indigenous knowledge, particularly mātauranga Māori, the land and the environment must be central elements. This includes connections to the signs that emerge from nature, such as the lunar cycle and the seasons. The renaissance of traditional knowledge around the lunar cycles, known as the maramataka or lunar calendar, exemplifies this. These tribally contextualised maramataka draw on the phases of the moon to guide activities such as forest care, food harvesting, fishing, and understanding emotional ebbs and flows. By becoming attuned to these natural cycles, Māori can reconnect with the environment, fostering a sense of presence and mindfulness that honours ancestral knowledge.

In conclusion, the profound relationship between whakapapa and the environment underscores the importance of placefulness or whenua kura in the decolonisation of Indigenous minds. By re-establishing these connections, we not only reclaim our cultural heritage but also empower ourselves to navigate the modern world with holism. This approach offers a pathway to Mauritau—a state of balanced well-being deeply rooted in our whakapapa and our connection to the land.

7. Conceptualisation of Placefulness (Whenau Kura) in Relation to Mauritau

Navigating the English language presents inherent challenges when discussing whenua kura and mauritau from a Māori perspective. Each English word carries a philosophical Western heritage that can disrupt and impose upon Indigenous concepts, making the colonial linguistic context both stifling and restrictive for Indigenous scholars. Despite these challenges, there is an omnipresent responsibility to theorise effectively for future applications, which is the aim of this discussion.

Whenua kura, or Māori placefulness, reflects both ancient traditions and innovative perspectives within te ao Māori (the Māori world). The term whenua, meaning land, also denotes the placenta in Māori, symbolising the nurturing and life-giving role of the land for humanity. Kura, translating to precious treasures, underscores the intrinsic value and sanctity of the environment. Together, whenua kura highlights the precious treasures inherent in the environment, encapsulating the whakataukī: ko ahau ko te taiao, ko te taiao ko ahau, which translates as I am the environment and the environment is me.

Placefulness, embodied in whenua kura, invites te ira tangata (the human element) to deeply contemplate our genealogical ties, or whakapapa, with the environment. It encourages reflection on ancestral narratives embedded within the land, offering pathways to mauritau—an optimal state characterised by openness and tranquillity. This interconnectedness deepens our understanding of our place within te ao Māori and fosters a profound sense of belonging and stewardship towards the land and its stories.

Mauritau, a fundamental Māori concept, combines two essential elements: mauri and tau. Mauri represents the vital force present in all living things, serving as the essential connection between the spiritual and physical realms. It is the dynamic energy that sustains life and underpins the holistic well-being of individuals and communities. Tau, on the other hand, signifies a state of calm and settledness. When merged into mauritau, the term embodies a profound state of openness, wellness, tranquillity, composure, and unencumbered existence (Angeli-Gordon 2023). Mauritau is deeply grounded in the reciprocal relationship between individuals and their environment, illustrating how humanity influences and is influenced by the natural world. This concept is crucial in understanding Māori placefulness, known as whenua kura.

Embracing whenua kura prompts exploration and the re-establishment of connections that honour the interdependence between humanity and the natural world. This holistic perspective integrates spiritual, physical, and environmental well-being, enriching our understanding of our place within te ao Māori. Furthermore, it serves as a grounding force for the Indigenous mind, which has often been displaced due to the imposition of Western ideologies such as Cartesian dualism that dichotomise the body and mind.

Whenua kura signifies an expansion of the self to encompass an integrated psycho-social–physical–environmental conceptualisation of the human experience. This reintegration has significant implications for well-being and our relationality with the environment, offering a pathway to perceive ourselves not through boundaries and separation but through integration.

In contemporary contexts, whenua kura and mauritau have profound relevance. They offer insights into addressing modern challenges faced by Māori communities, such as climate change, cultural preservation, and social justice. By integrating these concepts into Māori education, health, and social services, we can foster a holistic approach that honours ancestral knowledge while addressing current issues. Māori scholars and practitioners today continue to advance these concepts, demonstrating their enduring significance and adaptability in the face of contemporary challenges. As the contemporary poet Rupi Kaur eloquently expresses,

it is a blessing

to be the colour of the earth

do you know how often flowers

confuse me for home

(Kaur 2017, p. 227)

In a very personal way, the sentiment in Kaur’s poem captures an essence of whenua kura, highlighting the deep connection between humanity and the natural world, and the profound impact this relationship has on our sense of identity and belonging. As an Indigenous woman toiling to reintegrate my psycho-social–physical–environmental being, this poem speaks to something very important about whenua kura and the ancestrally and genealogically located pathways to well-being. Hokowhitu (1970) argues that deconstructing dualism is the necessary preparation to conceptualise the existential nature of the Indigenous body.

The conceptualisation of mauritau and whenua kura draws on ancestral knowledge applied and considered within modern settings to address an embodied disconnect that separates humanity and in particular Māori from the genealogical wealth. In short, whakapapa through mauritau and whenua kura offers medicine to experience an embodied Indigenous mind, soul, body, and environmental self in its essential unified natural state.

8. Conclusions

This article has delved deeply into the profound relationship between whakapapa (genealogy) and the environment, highlighting their essential roles in the decolonisation of Indigenous minds. By embracing the Māori worldviews, which seamlessly integrate genealogy and the natural world, we uncover powerful pathways for reclaiming and reinforcing our indigeneity through mauritau (mindfulness) and whenua kura (placefulness).

Drawing from the robust foundation of Kaupapa Māori research principles, this work prioritises Indigenous epistemologies, ontologies, and methodologies. It challenges dominant Western paradigms while nurturing a profound connection to ancestral knowledge embedded in the land and water.

Whenua kura, as a concept of Māori placefulness, emerges as a vital element for fostering a deep sense of belonging and stewardship towards the environment. This holistic perspective, which integrates spiritual, physical, and environmental well-being, stands as a powerful counter to the colonising effects of Cartesian dualism and Eurocentric notions of time.

Reconnecting with traditional Māori concepts of time, such as the maramataka (lunar calendar) and Matariki (seasonal markers), offers Māori communities a chance to realign with ancestral rhythms and cyclical understandings of existence. This decolonisation of time is crucial for harmonising the Māori mind with the genealogical wealth inherent in our worldviews.

In conclusion, the integration of whakapapa and placefulness holds transformative potential for decolonising Indigenous minds. It invites us to rethink our understanding of time and place through a Māori lens, advocating for a return to interconnected ways of being that honour the deep ties between humanity and the environment. This journey towards decolonisation is not only about reclaiming our knowledge systems but also about fostering a sustainable, resilient future rooted in cultural integrity and self-determination.