Ancestral Parenting: Reclaiming Māori Childrearing Practices in the Wake of Colonial Disruption

Abstract

This article investigates the colonial disruption of Māori parenting practices and its enduring effects on Indigenous identity and belonging. It explores how colonisation imposed Western parenting models, disrupting communal caregiving, and severing connections to whakapapa (ancestry) and whenua (land). Grounded in Kaupapa Māori methodologies, this research highlights pre-colonial parenting, attachment, and child development practices, demonstrating their alignment with contemporary child development theories and their potential to address intergenerational trauma. Drawing on oral literature, archival records, and studies, this paper proposes a framework for restoring ancestral parenting principles. It emphasises the importance of these practices in rebuilding cultural confidence, enhancing child wellbeing, and strengthening whānau relationships. By integrating ancestral principles into trauma-informed care, attachment-based parenting models, and culturally affirming teaching, the article envisions pathways for healing and resilience in Māori communities, contributing to broader Indigenous resurgence.

1. Introduction

The purpose of this article is to explore the impact of colonisation on Māori parenting practices and to propose pathways for reclaiming ancestral parenting principles. The focus is on how these practices align with contemporary child development theories and how their revitalisation can address intergenerational trauma and rebuild cultural identity. This paper is of value because Māori children are some of the most vulnerable within New Zealand society, with physical violence and death by violence disproportionately affecting them. In the spectrum of vulnerability, Indigenous children are the most susceptible and vulnerable to abuse. This is unacceptable.

This paper is the culmination of a few research projects with intersecting foci and learnings. Notably, my doctoral research that explored the Indigenous Māori concept of Mauritau as the basis for the wellbeing for Māori children in Māori-medium schooling settings is brought forward, alongside a range of research projects with a mix of collaborators. These works interrogate and challenge coloniality and work to (re)member ancestral parenting wisdom as kind, loving, and gentle, as the basis of flourishing adults is flourishing children.

This paper will explore what is known about pre-colonial parenting practices for Māori, discuss the ways that colonial disruption occurred and then provide a framework for the regeneration of ancestral parenting practices to heal communities.

2. Methodology

Kaupapa Māori—a methodology that prioritises an Indigenous Māori way of knowing, being, and doing—underpins this article. At its heart, a Kaupapa Māori approach applies a standpoint of being conducted by Māori, for Māori, and with Māori. Indigenous peoples throughout the world have a fraught relationship with research (Rautaki Ltd. 2022; G. H. Smith 1997; L. T. Smith 2021). Both historically and in a contemporary world, research has been an unwelcome and hostile cog in the colonising machine. Within the western research paradigm, Indigenous peoples have been ‘researched’ in a way that has been dehumanising and is coloured (pun intended) by the colonial and paternalistic gaze. The fallacy of objectivity is challenged as a dictum of ‘rigorous’ and ‘valid’ research. Kaupapa Māori research holds the assertion that ALL research is affected by the worldview of the researcher. Unabashedly recognising the subjective and drawing on positionality as a strength and central baseline within the research frame are validated within Kaupapa Māori research.

The embodiment of Māori values is at the heart of a Kaupapa Māori methodology, and which these values are articulated in the Kaupapa Māori Principles:

• Tino Rangatiratanga—The self-determination principle.
• Taonga Tuku Iho—The cultural aspiration principle.
• Ako—The culturally preferred pedagogy principle.
• Kia piki ake i ngā raroraru o te kāinga—The socio-economic mediation principle.
• Whānau—The extended family structure principle.
• Kaupapa—The collective philosophy principle.
• Te Tiriti o Waitangi—The principle of honouring treaties made.
• Āta—The principle of growing respectful relationships.

Positionality

I am an Indigenous Māori woman with tribal connections to Ngāti Whātua, Te Taoū, Te Roroa, and Ngāpuhi. My lived experiences as a student, teacher, and parent inform my research and commitment to reclaiming ancestral parenting practices. My early schooling was fragmented; I attended twenty elementary and five secondary schools, ultimately failing high school. These challenges shaped my passion for teaching, equipping me with empathy and insight into the struggles of the children I taught.

As a parent, I was gifted my first child through the traditional Māori adoption practice of whāngai at the age of 28. Later, I gave birth to my second child at 40, and both are being raised with te reo Māori as their first language. Te reo Māori is my second language, reclaimed as an adult and solidified through writing my doctoral dissertation in it. My journey has been one of unravelling childhood trauma, consciously choosing to disrupt cycles of harm, and prioritising healing through language, culture, and practice.

In my work as a researcher, I centre Māori and Indigenous children. I care deeply about how children learn, how they experience love, and how we can create conditions for them to thrive by reclaiming our taonga tuku iho—ancestral knowledge and practices. My research is a continuation of this lifelong commitment to decolonisation and reclamation, grounded in both personal and collective healing.

3. Pre-Colonial Parenting Practices

It was a lovely sea-breezed walk, but I call it a literature review because where the cliffs tumble down to the foreshore (remember the foreshore?) there are actually stories in the land. Stories are knowledge, and knowledge is literature.

(Jackson 2011)

I use the above quote from the late Moana Jackson so frequently. It reminds us that knowledge is deeply embedded in the land, the people, and the connections between them. For Māori, this understanding forms the foundation of parenting practices, which are grounded in relational and spiritual principles. These principles emphasise collective caregiving and deep connections to whakapapa (ancestry) and whenua (land).

3.1. Familial Structure

Māori familial structures are rooted in the concept of whānau, which extends far beyond the nuclear family model (Pihama and Lee-Morgan 2022). Whānau includes extended family members who collectively share the responsibilities for raising tamariki and supporting one another. This structure is supported by the hapū (sub-tribe) and iwi (tribe), forming a network of care and connection. This collective approach ensures that tamariki (children) are surrounded by a web of support, learning from multiple generations, and drawing strength from their whakapapa (ancestry). Elders play a central role as knowledge holders, passing down tikanga (a cultural ethic), history, and values. This intergenerational approach reinforces cultural identity, resilience, and a sense of belonging.

Māori parenting was, and remains, an intergenerational responsibility. It integrates atua (deities) and tikanga (cultural ethic) into daily life, nurturing holistic wellbeing through spiritual, emotional, and physical dimensions. Parenting practices are not solely about raising children but about raising the next generation of kaitiaki (custodians) who will uphold and protect whakapapa (ancestry), whenua (land), and mātauranga (knowledge).

3.2. Whāngai (Customary Adoption)

Whāngai is a traditional model of adoption that exemplifies the flexibility and adaptability of Māori caregiving systems (C. Smith 2012; Pihama et al. 2015; Higgins and Meredith 2021; Jenkins and Mountain Harte 2011; Pihama and Lee-Morgan 2022). It serves to strengthen whānau ties and reinforce whakapapa (ancestry), ensuring that tamariki (children) are always surrounded by aroha (compassion) and guidance. This practice reflects an expansive view of family, where caregiving extends beyond biological parents to include grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. Whāngai demonstrates how relationships within whānau are prioritised and nurtured to maintain social cohesion and cultural continuity. Whāngai establishes an ethic of care that ensures that everyone in a community can be involved in the joy of raising children.

3.3. Waiata Oriori (Lullabies and Oral Traditions)

Waiata oriori carry ancestral wisdom, whakapapa, and values through song and storytelling (Taniwha-Paao 2024; Jenkins and Mountain Harte 2011). These lullabies serve not only to soothe pēpi but also to instil identity and cultural knowledge from an early age. Through oriori, tamariki learn about their place in the world; their connections to atua, whenua, and tīpuna; and the responsibilities they carry as future guardians of these relationships. Waiata oriori are rich in metaphor, symbolism, and teachings, bridging generations and ensuring cultural continuity. One well-known oriori is Pōpō, composed by Enoka Te Pakaru. Below is the first stanza of the oriori, followed by a refined translation by the author.

• Pōpō!
• Nā Enoka Te Pakaru i tito
• Pōpō! E tangi ana Tama ki te kai māna!
• Waiho me tiki ake ki te Pouahaokai,
• Hei ā mai te pakake ki uta rā
• Hei waiū mō Tama!
• Kia mauria mai e tō tupuna, e Uenuku!
• Whakarongo! Ko te kūmara ko Parinuiterā.
• Ka hikimata te tapuae o Tangaroa,
• Ka whaimata te tapuae o Tangaroa.
• Tangaroa! Ka haruru!

• Pōpō!
• My son cries out for food!
• Wait until it is fetched from the sacred storehouses of the sea,
• Until the whale is guided to the shore
• To provide you with its milk, my son.
• It will be delivered by your ancestor, Uenuku!
• Listen! The kūmara comes from the great domain of the sun.
• Tangaroa’s footsteps rise,
• Tangaroa’s footsteps advance.
• Tangaroa! Hear the resounding roar!

This first stanza above expresses the deep love and devotion of the composer for the child. It reflects a desire to provide the very best sustenance, drawn from sacred and abundant realms—whether the life-giving ocean or the celestial domain where kūmara originates. The imagery of harvesting whale milk symbolises a commitment to ensuring the child’s wellbeing, linking their nourishment to atua and ancestral knowledge.

Although only the first stanza is included here, the remaining verses weave together significant tribal narratives, including the mythical origin of the kūmara (sweet potato). These stories serve as an oral inheritance, embedding within the child a sense of whakapapa, identity, and belonging. This oriori not only soothes and nurtures but also transmits essential knowledge, shaping the child’s understanding of their world. This also illustrates the role of males in the nurturing of children.

3.4. Early European Observers of Māori Parenting

Early European observers in Aotearoa New Zealand noted the gentle, permissive, and nurturing approach Māori took to childrearing. Although Māori are not reliant on the colonial gaze to validate and affirm ancestral parenting, modern scholarship often requires a triangulation of evidence. Combining oral histories, written accounts, and contemporary research affirms the strength and effectiveness of Māori parenting practices.

To begin with, Salmond (1993) presents the gentle and engaged parenting of Māori pre-colonial mothers and fathers through quoting the French explorer Julien Marie Crozet on his visit to the Bay of Islands in 1772:

The women seemed to be good mothers and showed affection for their offspring. I have often seen them play with their children, caress then, chew the fern root, pick at the stringy parts and then take it out of their mouth to put it into that of their nursling. The men were also very fond of and kind to their children.

(Salmond 1993, p. 422)

This next quote addresses the way that men cared for and cherished children. Men were highly engaged in the process of nurturing children in pre-colonial Aotearoa New Zealand. Restoring these traditional ways of fathering and Indigenous masculinities is central to the process of decolonisation. The disruption of Māori masculinities has been incredibly damaging to the fabric of Māori society, and a reclamation of traditional Māori fathering is central to reclamation of Māori masculinities.

I saw no quarrelling while I was there. They are kind to their women and children. I never observed either with a mark of violence upon them, nor did I ever see a child struck... The chiefs take their children from their mother’s breast to all their public meetings, where they hear all that is said upon politics, religion, war etc. by the oldest men. Children will frequently ask questions in public conversation and are answered by the chiefs. I have often been surprised to see children sitting amongst the chiefs and paying close attention to what was said. The children never appear under any embarrassment when they address a stranger whom they never saw. In every village the children, as soon as they learned any of our names, came up to us and spoke to us with the greatest familiarity.

(Elder 1932, pp. 128–93)

The following quote articulates the approach that Māori took to choosing to not chastise children:

Considering how little the Māori children are subject to restraint, their quiet and orderly conduct is especially remarkable. In bringing them up, the parents seldom have recourse to personal chastisement, believing that it has the effect of damaging the spirit of the child. At an early age, the Māori children acquire great self-respect; and at the public discussions of their elders, they may be seen seated around the outer circle, attentive, grave, and thoughtful listeners.

(Swainson 1859, p. 10)

In reclaiming and revitalising these traditions, we honour the wisdom of our tūpuna (ancestors) and create pathways for future generations to thrive. The practices of whāngai and waiata oriori are not relics of the past but living expressions of mātauranga Māori that continue to shape how we nurture and guide our tamariki.

3.5. Colonial Disruption and Fragmentation

Colonisation promoted Western parenting models that emphasised individualism and nuclear families, which had an effect on communal caregiving practices, connection with whenua and spiritual traditions, and language and cultural practices, impacting identity formation (Te Ora Hou Aotearoa Incorporated 2010; Jenkins and Mountain Harte 2011; Pihama and Lee-Morgan 2022). These disruptions altered Māori understandings of whānau and the collective responsibility for raising children, replacing them with structures that prioritised independence over interdependence.

The erosion of pre-colonial Māori parenting systems, grounded in whakapapa (ancestral connection), whanaungatanga (relationality), and tikanga (a culturally grounded ethic), fractured the support networks that sustained the wellbeing of tamariki (children) and whānau (families). Practices such as shared caregiving by extended family members, using storytelling to transmit values, and ceremonies that reinforced connections to atua and whenua were marginalised or actively discouraged. Consequently, Māori were left to navigate parenting frameworks that often conflicted with their cultural values, creating tensions and feelings of inadequacy in maintaining tikanga (cultural practices).

The adoption of Western ideals impacted on the transmission of mātauranga Māori (Māori knowledge), severing ties to the ancestral knowledge and spiritual practices that affirmed identity and belonging. These cultural losses compounded over generations, leading to whakamā (shame) and a diminished sense of cultural confidence. Without access to culturally grounded parenting models, many Māori experienced alienation from their heritage, contributing to cycles of intergenerational trauma.

This section examines how these disruptions not only eroded cultural foundations but also contributed to patterns of disconnection, disempowerment, and dislocation from traditional values. It highlights the impact of colonisation on parenting approaches and explores pathways to reclaim and revitalise Māori parenting practices as part of broader efforts to heal intergenerational trauma and restore cultural identity.

4. Reclaiming Ancestral Parenting

The revitalisation of ancestral parenting offers pathways for healing, identity reclamation, and cultural reconnection. By drawing upon mātauranga Māori and traditional caregiving practices, these efforts aim to rebuild whānau strength, enhance tamariki wellbeing, and re-establish intergenerational connections grounded in tikanga. Reclaiming these approaches not only fosters resilience but also affirms Māori identity and promotes emotional, spiritual, and cultural wellbeing.

4.1. Community Programmes

Community programmes could play a central role in embedding tikanga-based parenting practices within contemporary settings. Initiatives in Kōhanga Reo and early childhood education could provide safe and nurturing environments where tamariki are surrounded by te reo Māori (Māori language), karakia (spiritual incantations), waiata (songs), and pūrākau (storytelling). These programmes could incorporate collective caregiving models that reflect the values of aroha, manaakitanga, and whanaungatanga, offering whānau practical tools to integrate cultural traditions into daily parenting routines. Tamariki raised within these environments experience a sense of belonging and cultural affirmation, contributing to stronger whānau bonds and identity development.

4.2. Whānau Workshops

Whānau workshops could create spaces for new parents to learn and practise ancestral parenting techniques such as pīkau pēpi (traditional babywearing) and oriori (lullabies and chants). These practices nurture emotional security, strengthen attachment, and reinforce whakapapa by embedding cultural narratives and values into the early lives of tamariki. Workshops also promote whakawhanaungatanga by connecting parents with kaumatua and cultural practitioners, ensuring the intergenerational transmission of knowledge. By focusing on hands-on learning and storytelling, whānau are empowered to reclaim traditions that were once disrupted and marginalised.

4.3. Reclaiming Rituals

Cultural rituals re-establish connections between pēpi and Papatūānuku (the earth mother) and the other Māori gods and goddesses through practices like burying the umbilical cord and whenua (placenta) ceremonies. These rituals reaffirm the spiritual bonds between tamariki and the whenua, reinforcing a sense of tūrangawaewae (place of belonging) and identity. They also honour the interconnectedness of whakapapa (ancestry), atua (gods), and whenua (land), instilling values of respect, protection, and care for the natural world. Revitalising these ceremonies supports cultural continuity, providing tamariki with a foundation deeply rooted in tikanga and mātauranga Māori.

Developing tools and resources for whānau to find connections with the rhythms and rituals of the environment, such as the changes in the seasons and the phases of the moon, presents a potent pathway for decolonisation and the restoration of traditional Māori ways of being.

Together, these initiatives illustrate how cultural resilience and affirmation can be nurtured through practice, education, and collective action. They highlight the transformative potential of ancestral parenting to address intergenerational trauma, strengthen whānau relationships, and restore cultural pride and identity. As these efforts continue to expand, they not only heal the impacts of colonisation but also ensure the survival and flourishing of Māori values and traditions for future generations.

4.4. Alignment with Contemporary Child Development Theories

Traditional Māori parenting finds alignment with modern attachment theory and developmental psychology, reflecting practices that nurture secure relationships, emotional regulation, and resilience in tamariki (children). Grounded in whakapapa, tikanga, and mātauranga Māori, these approaches emphasise the interconnectedness of emotional, physical, and spiritual wellbeing, demonstrating their enduring relevance in contemporary contexts. Finding an alignment with contemporary child development theories does not validate mātauranga Māori; rather, mātauranga Māori stands on its own and utilises available tools to interpret and examine its impact.

4.4.1. Secure Attachment

Secure attachment is central to both traditional Māori parenting and attachment theory, which identifies responsive and consistent caregiving as essential for building trust and emotional security (J. R. Schore and Schore 2008; A. N. Schore 2017; O’Connor and Croft 2001). Practices such as pīkau pēpi (traditional babywearing) provide a physical closeness that fosters a strong bond between pēpi and their caregivers. The rhythmic movement and heartbeat connection during pīkau (carrying) soothe tamariki, promoting a calmness can reinforce feelings of safety and attachment. This mirrors contemporary understandings of attachment theory, which emphasise the importance of physical touch, proximity, and responsiveness in early development (Cicchetti et al. 2006; Meins et al. 2018; Waters et al. 2000a, 2000b; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network 1997). Traditional Māori approaches highlight the role of whānau as collective caregivers, ensuring that tamariki feel secure within broader social networks, not just nuclear families.

4.4.2. Co-Regulation and Emotional Regulation

Strategies for emotional regulation are supported by traditional Māori parenting, which aligns with modern psychology. Practices such as waiata oriori (lullabies and chants) provide comfort, create emotional stability, and reinforce identity through storytelling (Jenkins and Mountain Harte 2011; Taniwha-Paao 2024; Papakura 1938; Pihama and Lee-Morgan 2022). Oriori were traditionally composed to impart values, whakapapa, and aspirations for the child’s future, nurturing emotional and cultural confidence. These practices mirror modern methods of co-regulation, where caregivers help children manage their emotions through their soothing voice, rhythm, and consistent interactions. Furthermore, waiata and oriori serve as tools for embedding cultural identity and belonging, which are recognised in developmental psychology as protective factors for emotional wellbeing. These concepts align with co-regulation, where caregivers model and support emotional resilience, gradually enabling self-regulation in tamariki. Mauritau is another pathway towards wellbeing and supporting emotional regulation (Angeli-Gordon 2023, 2024). Mauritau is a cultural framework that denotes the settling of a the lifeforce or the mauri of a person and provides a basis for resilient and flourishing children.

The state of mauritau is an ideal state of openness and ease, where emotions remain regulated rather than dysregulated. When we are in mauritau, we can observe the natural ebbs and flows of our emotions with curiosity rather than experiencing overwhelm. Each person has their own pathways to return to mauritau—whether through spiritual practice, connection with nature, physical activity, solitude, relationships with others, or a combination of these.

In parenting, a crucial role is recognising the mauri of children and supporting their return to mauritau through engaged and responsive caregiving. Ultimately, the goal is to help children become attuned to their own mauri and develop self-determination over their emotional and spiritual wellbeing (Angeli-Gordon 2023).

An important marker of mauritau is resilience—the ability to navigate challenges from a grounded and centred place.

4.4.3. Resilience Theory

A growing body of research articulates resilience, and, in particular, resilience in children (Masten 2001; Ramamurthy et al. 2024; Pillay 2023; Goldstein and Brooks 2023; Wu et al. 2013; Herrman et al. 2011; Young et al. 2019; Van Breda 2018). Building resilience is deeply embedded in Māori parenting practices, which promote adaptability, collective strength, and problem-solving. Through traditional parenting, children are raised with a sense of mana (esteem) and whakapapa (ancestral grounding), knowing their place within the wider whānau, hapū, and iwi. This grounding fosters a sense of purpose and resilience, equipping children to navigate challenges with confidence. Contemporary resilience theory emphasises the importance of strong relationships, cultural identity, and social support—principles inherent in Māori parenting models. Through practices like karakia (prayers), haka (expressive movements), and rāranga (weaving), tamariki develop emotional and cognitive skills while being immersed in traditions that celebrate resilience and perseverance.

4.4.4. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Māori parenting values the importance of intergenerational learning, oral traditions, and collective caregiving, which closely align with Vygotsky’s theory of learning through social interactions (Moll and Tomasello 2007; Roth and Lee 2007; Engeström and Sannino 2010; Chaiklin 2003). In Māori culture, pēpi (infants) are surrounded by a rich environment of cultural knowledge passed down from elders, whānau, and community members. This immersive experience strengthens both their cognitive and social development, as they learn through meaningful engagements with others. The shared caregiving practices foster a strong sense of connection and belonging, ensuring that children grow up within a supportive and collaborative environment. Through these interactions, Māori parenting not only nurtures a child’s intellectual growth but also deepens their understanding of their cultural identity and place within the wider community.

4.4.5. Polyvagal Theory

Polyvagal Theory, developed by Dr. Stephen Porges, explains how our nervous system shapes our sense of safety, connection, and stress responses, centring on the vagus nerve, which influences heart rate, breathing, and emotional regulation (Conroy and Perryman 2022; Kozlowitz et al. 2021; Ryland et al. 2022; Porges 2021, 2022). At its core are three states: the ventral vagal state, where we feel safe, connected, and able to engage; the sympathetic state, which triggers fight or flight when we sense danger; and the dorsal vagal state, which causes us to shut down or withdraw when a threat feels overwhelming. For children, co-regulation is essential—emotional regulation is not learned alone, but through warm, responsive interactions with caregivers. The way we hold, rock, sing to, and soothe our babies directly influences their nervous system, helping them to feel safe and secure. Traditional Māori parenting practices like pīkau pēpi (babywearing) and waiata oriori (lullabies, storytelling) align deeply with this, using rhythm, tone, and repetition to settle a child’s nervous system and create a deep sense of safety and belonging. Singing, storytelling, and physical closeness help pēpi to develop a regulated nervous system, rewiring them for safety, reducing stress, and building resilience. Polyvagal Theory reinforces what Māori have always known—when children are held, nurtured, and surrounded by love, their wairua (spirit) and tinana (body) are in balance. Pīkau pēpi (babywearing), waiata oriori (lullabies), and whānau-based caregiving are not just cultural practices; they are deeply aligned with how the nervous system develops, ensuring pēpi grow up feeling safe, connected, and strong in who they are.

4.4.6. Indigenous Child Development Models

Drawing on the work of scholars like Dr. Cindy Blackstock, Dr. Linda Tuhiwai Smith, and Dr. Leonie Pihama, it is evident that Indigenous frameworks of child development prioritise relationality, whakapapa (ancestry), and collective care (Shaheen-Hussain 2023; Green and Baldry 2009; Pihama and Lee-Morgan 2022; L. T. Smith 2021; C. Smith 2012; Pihama et al. 2015; Picard 2018; Fisher et al. 2009; Blackstock and Tromce n.d.). These concepts align closely with mātauranga Māori, emphasising the interconnectedness of individuals, families, and communities in nurturing children. These frameworks challenge the individualistic models of development that dominate Western perspectives, instead recognising the importance of relationships, cultural heritage, and collective wellbeing in shaping a child’s growth. Through this lens, child development is not viewed in isolation, but as a dynamic, interconnected process that is deeply rooted in cultural and familial contexts.

This section highlights the compatibility of ancestral practices with contemporary frameworks, showing how traditional Māori parenting not only meets but often exceeds modern developmental standards. By integrating cultural practices with current psychological insights, Māori whānau can reclaim and revitalise parenting approaches that promote secure attachments, emotional intelligence, and resilience. These practices affirm the strength of mātauranga Māori as a foundation for raising confident, grounded, and emotionally healthy children.

5. Te Anga Whakarauora Taute Tamariki Tuku Iho: A Framework for Reclaiming Māori Childrearing Practices

This framework provides a structured approach to understanding and reclaiming Māori childrearing practices, acknowledging the impact of colonial disruption while focusing on strengthening whānau and intergenerational wellbeing.

5.1. Te Whakapapa o te Taute Tamariki—Foundations of Māori Childrearing

• Whakapapa as the Guiding Principle: Māori childrearing practices are rooted in an interconnected worldview where tamariki are nurtured within whānau, hapū, and iwi structures.
• Early Observations of Māori Parenting: Historical accounts describe Māori childrearing as being engaged and gentle, emphasising the value placed on emotional security, collective responsibility, and aroha.
• Enduring Knowledge Systems: Despite disruptions, Māori ways of nurturing remain embedded in whakapapa and mātauranga, accessible through kōrero tuku iho (oral literatures), waiata (songs), karakia (incantations), and customary practices.

5.2. Ngā Wero me ngā Awenga—Disruptions and Their Impact

• Colonial Disruptions to Whānau Structures: The imposition of colonial policies, urbanisation, and systemic oppression have weakened the intergenerational transmission of Māori childrearing knowledge.
• Shifts in Parenting Norms: The introduction of punitive discipline models, state intervention, and the marginalisation of Māori values have altered traditional approaches to nurturing and discipline.
• Contemporary Challenges: The overrepresentation of Māori children in child protection systems highlights the ongoing impact of these disruptions, rather than an inherent issue within Māori whānau.

5.3. Te Ara Whakamua—Pathways to Reclaiming Māori Childrearing

• Reconnecting with Whānau-Centred Approaches: Strengthening whānau networks and intergenerational knowledge-sharing to restore nurturing, mana-enhancing (spiritually empowering) parenting.
• Embedding Māori Frameworks of Wellbeing: Utilising concepts such as mauri (lifeforce), mana (spiritual power), and wairua (spirit) in parenting approaches to support the development of tamariki in culturally affirming ways.
• Whānau-Led Solutions: Encouraging community-driven strategies that empower whānau (families) to reclaim and adapt their childrearing practices in ways that align with both cultural foundations and contemporary realities.

5.4. Te Iho Tāngaengae—Sustaining and Strengthening the Kaupapa

• Normalising Māori Parenting Narratives: Shifting public discourse to recognise Māori parenting as inherently mana-affirming and grounded in whanaungatanga (connection).
• Interweaving Whakapapa (genealogy) and Innovation: Honouring ancestral wisdom while embracing new tools and knowledge that support Māori-led child development.
• Embedding in Policy and Practice: Ensuring that Māori-led childrearing approaches are recognised, supported, and implemented in whānau, education, and social systems.

6. Discussion

This discussion examines the broader implications of reclaiming traditional Māori parenting practices for identity reclamation and cultural resurgence. It highlights the transformative potential of reconnecting with whakapapa (ancestry) and tikanga (a cultural ethic) to address intergenerational trauma, strengthen whānau (family) wellbeing, and navigate the challenges of balancing tradition with contemporary realities. It also explores opportunities to embed these principles within policy and education systems, ensuring sustainable cultural revitalisation.

6.1. Addressing Intergenerational Trauma

Intergenerational trauma is the passing down of trauma from one generation to the next, shaping the wellbeing, experiences, and behaviours of descendants. It can be carried through whānau relationships, cultural disconnection, and inherited stress responses, influencing how future generations navigate the world (Bombay et al. 2014; Bowers and Yehuda 2016; Yehuda et al. 2001; Brave Heart et al. 2011; Evans-Campbell 2008). Intergenerational trauma has left lasting impacts on Māori whānau, often resulting in disconnection from cultural practices, language, and identity. Colonisation disrupted collective caregiving systems, replacing them with individualistic parenting models that isolated families and eroded communal support networks. Restoring traditional practices such as pīkau pēpi, oriori, and whenua rituals offers pathways for healing by reaffirming whakapapa and re-establishing cultural foundations. These practices not only reconnect tamariki and whānau to ancestral knowledge but also promote emotional and spiritual wellbeing. By embedding tikanga into parenting, whānau can heal historical wounds and reclaim a sense of identity, belonging, and pride that strengthens their resilience and self-determination.

6.2. Whānau Wellbeing

Strengthening whānau wellbeing is central to identity reclamation. Traditional Māori parenting emphasises collective responsibility and reciprocity, ensuring tamariki are raised within an environment of aroha, manaakitanga, and whanaungatanga. Shared practices such as group caregiving, storytelling, and karakia reinforce cultural values and deepen connections within whānau and communities. These approaches provide tamariki with strong role models, emotional security, and cultural confidence. Revitalising such practices not only enhances parenting skills but also reinforces the role of kaumatua and cultural leaders in transmitting mātauranga Māori. Supporting whānau in integrating these practices can create thriving, culturally grounded households that model intergenerational care and support.

6.3. Challenges

While traditional parenting methods offer invaluable insights, navigating contemporary contexts presents challenges. Modern lifestyles, including urbanisation, economic pressures, and digital influences, can create barriers to maintaining tikanga-based practices. Whānau may face difficulties accessing cultural knowledge, particularly those disconnected from their reo (language) or tikanga (traditional practices). Additionally, there is an ongoing need to ensure cultural authenticity without romanticising the past or overlooking practical adaptations for today’s realities. Addressing these challenges requires flexible and inclusive approaches that acknowledge the diversity of whānau experiences while prioritising the reclamation of Māori values and practices.

6.4. Opportunities for Policy and Education Systems

Embedding these principles within policy and education systems offers significant opportunities for cultural resurgence. Early childhood centres such as Kōhanga Reo provide effective models for integrating tikanga-based parenting into everyday practice. Expanding these approaches into mainstream early education, antenatal programmes, and social services can normalise and promote Māori parenting frameworks. Policies that recognise and resource mātauranga Māori approaches—such as funding for whānau workshops, kaumātua mentorship, and research into ancestral parenting—can further support identity reclamation efforts.

Education systems also play a vital role in promoting cultural literacy, pride, and resilience. Including mātauranga Māori within curricula, teacher training, and parenting education ensures that these practices are accessible and valued across generations. Programmes focusing on parenting skills, cultural narratives, and emotional regulation based on Māori models can help whānau to build confidence and capability in applying tikanga within contemporary settings.

7. Conclusions

This discussion underscores the critical role of revitalising traditional Māori parenting practices in fostering identity reclamation and cultural resurgence. By addressing intergenerational trauma, strengthening whānau wellbeing, and embedding tikanga into policy and education systems, Māori can reclaim cultural authority and ensure tamariki grow up grounded in their heritage. These approaches offer not only healing but also a vision for thriving whānau and communities where traditional knowledge and modern contexts are harmonised. Moving forward, sustained efforts to normalise and resource these practices will be essential in securing cultural continuity and empowering future generations.

7.1. Alignment with Modern Child Development Theories

Traditional Māori parenting practices, such as pīkau pēpi and waiata oriori, closely align with modern frameworks that emphasise secure attachment, emotional regulation, and resilience. These practices demonstrate how ancestral methods meet contemporary psychological needs, reinforcing the relevance of mātauranga Māori in today’s contexts.

7.2. Trauma Recovery and Whānau Confidence

Tikanga-based approaches offer pathways to healing intergenerational trauma by restoring cultural identity, enhancing whānau connections, and promoting emotional security. Incorporating these practices into parenting programmes fosters confidence in Māori parents, enabling them to reclaim practices that were historically marginalised.

7.3. Cultural Resilience and Identity Reclamation

The integration of rituals and practices, such as ceremonies for burying the placenta, reinforce connections to land and gods, fostering a sense of belonging and identity. These approaches contribute to long-term cultural resilience and empower whānau to sustain practices that honour mātauranga Māori.

7.4. Future Directions

Future research could further explore the role of traditional gods in Māori parenting frameworks, examining how spiritual beliefs and connections shape caregiving practices and identity formation. Investigating the long-term impacts of tikanga-based parenting on tamariki wellbeing, including emotional stability, cultural confidence, and resilience, could provide deeper insights into their transformative potential. Additionally, studies focused on adapting traditional practices to contemporary urban contexts could identify strategies for ensuring cultural authenticity while addressing modern challenges.

7.5. Final Thoughts

The findings presented underscore the transformative power of reconnecting with ancestral parenting practices to heal, restore, and revitalise Māori cultural identity. As Māori continue to reclaim and adapt these practices, there is a pressing need for policies and programmes that actively support their implementation. By combining traditional knowledge with contemporary insights, Māori parenting can serve as a model for cultural resilience, offering tamariki and whānau a foundation of strength, identity, and wellbeing that endures across generations.