Profiling the Cypriot Fisheries Sector through the Lens of Fishers: A Participatory Approach between Fishers and Scientists

Abstract

Despite the sector’s minor contribution (0.5%) to the Gross National Product, the fisheries sector in Cyprus is particularly important to the micro economy of coastal communities, offering direct and indirect employment and supporting small family businesses. Like any industry, the Cypriot fisheries sector faces its own challenges and opportunities. The current study aimed to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) of the fisheries sector in Cyprus based on fishers’ knowledge and to provide strategic recommendations based on the sector’s identified needs. Following a participatory approach, a workshop with 30 small-scale fishers, six large pelagic longline fishers, and three scientists was conducted in November 2023. Fishers and scientists worked together to conduct the SWOT and the TOWS matrix (a reverse SWOT) analyses. Findings from the SWOT–TOWS analyses were used to develop strategic recommendations for the sector. Finally, using the Impact–Effort prioritisation method, the strategic recommendations were prioritised according to their potential impact on the sector and the effort required for their implementation. Based on the analyses, the study proposes 12 strategic recommendations that could significantly improve the sector’s overall performance and sustainability, which if applied will give a light of hope for the future of the Cypriot fisheries sector.

1. Introduction

Cyprus is considered a minor EU-27 producer of fishery products, with a fishing fleet of 814 vessels and a capacity of 3838 tons (gross tonnage). The Cypriot fishing fleet is dominated by small scale fishing vessels, comprising 94% (<12 m vessels), and 88% of the fishing gear used consists of gillnets and trammel nets targeting pelagic, demersal and benthic species. In 2021, the landings of fresh whole/gutted products for human consumption in Cyprus reached 5.7 million euros and 1200 tons [1]. Though a minor EU contributor in fishery and aquaculture products (0.04%), small-scale fisheries in Cyprus exhibit a longstanding tradition and history, and are a vital economic activity for several coastal communities [2]. Indirectly, fisheries increase the economic value of other economic sectors to which they are linked, such as processing, trade, hotels, restaurants, and transportation. However, the profession of small-scale fishers in Cyprus has experienced dramatic changes jeopardising its future, due to the: (i) decline of marine resources, overfishing and ecosystem changes; (ii) competition with recreational fisheries for the same resources; (iii) increase in fuel costs; (iv) reduction and competition for marine space with other economic activity sectors (i.e., tourism, oil-gas extraction), and (v) deliberate and/or accidental introduction of non-indigenous species [2,3]. Ιn 2022, fishing and aquaculture’s average gross monthly earnings were an estimated 22% lower than all employees’ average gross monthly earnings [4]. These numbers contradict the value of fisheries’ products mentioned above (5.7 million), a number expected to provide a much larger income to fishers/fisheries’ employees. These numbers are primarily allocated to grocery stores, super/hypermarkets (78%), fishmongers or specialist shops (37%), and only 23% is directly allocated to fishers [5]. Fishing, along with aquaculture, agriculture, and forestry, is one of the most nature–human interactive economic activities, and maintaining sustainable ecosystem use and biodiversity conservation are integral parts of fisheries’ survival and continuation [6]. The Cypriot commercial fishing fleet historically (1950–2010) consisted of three sectors: the polyvalent small-scale (1134 vessels) and large pelagic (25 vessels) fisheries and the bottom trawl fishery (four vessels). Later, in 2013, the purse seine fishery targeting small pelagic was introduced, with one vessel [7]. In 2020, the total number of fishing vessels decreased by 12% compared to the period of 2008–2019, resulting in a decrease in the total gross tonnage and engine power. During the same period, the small-scale fishing vessels decreased by 6% and the large-scale vessels increased by 30%, indicating the negative impact on the small-scale fishery and the rise of the large pelagic longline fishery [8,9]. The pelagic longline fishery began in 1973, targeting swordfish (Xiphias gladius) and later, in 2004, targeting albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga), which has been responsible for the increase in the number of large-scale vessels as well as in total landings.

Social–ecological systems (SESs) are intricate adaptive systems where people and the environment are closely linked. In fisheries’ management, SESs involve the complex interaction between the ecological and social aspects of the marine environment, encompassing the interactions between fishers, their communities, and the marine ecosystems they depend on for their livelihoods [10]. SESs’ interdisciplinary approach has proved to be a valuable tool for researchers and decision-makers aiming to understand and address the complicated challenges that arise from the interaction between humans and the environment [11]. Vulnerability, resilience, and adaptive capacity are the main concepts applied to understanding how SESs respond to change [12]. An important component of the system is the ability to function despite intrinsic or extrinsic disturbances [13]. In the world of fisheries, understanding SESs is fundamental for implementing sustainable and effective management strategies. The close connection between the ecological health of the marine environment and the prosperity of fishing communities highlights the importance of integrating economic and social dimensions together with ecological conservation efforts. This holistic approach recognises the importance of traditional knowledge, community participation and cultural values in transforming to traditional fishing practices to sustainable ones while encompassing ecosystem protection [14]. The concept of SESs demonstrates the need for inclusive and collaborative decision-making processes that engage stakeholders from diverse backgrounds, including fishers, local communities, scientists, and policymakers. Participatory governance and co-management arrangements enable fisheries to benefit from the synergistic efforts of various stakeholders, leading to more effective, equitable, and sustainable management outcomes [14,15,16,17].

Fishers’ Ecological Knowledge (FEK) is crucial to understanding the complex dynamics of marine ecosystems. FEK involves the fishers’ traditional ecological knowledge and experiences from their long-term use of biological resources or a specific ecosystem, which is passed down from one generation to the other. Existing data-driven fishery-dependent or independent methods can be supported with valuable information by incorporating FEK into data collection [18,19,20,21]. FEK is crucial for effective fisheries’ management, as it provides important information to fisheries’ science that may not be fully obtained by conventional scientific research alone. This type of knowledge can contribute to filling knowledge gaps, complementing scientific data and contributing to more complete and informed decision-making processes in fisheries’ management [22,23,24,25]. More effective management strategies that are aligned with the real problems of fishers and the local marine environment can be developed by incorporating FEK into the scientific advisory process. This participatory approach helps to facilitate a better understanding of the link and interaction between people and the marine environment, leading to the development of more tailored, adaptive and sustainable management practices [18,22,23,26,27]. This bottom-up, participatory and collaborative approach facilitates the acceptance and implementation of management measures by fishers, promotes trust and mutual respect, as it acknowledges fishers’ expertise, and finally, contributes to more effective and successful management measures in the long term [28].

Business strategic planning methods provide a structured framework for identifying and addressing the unique challenges faced by a company or an industry, as well as for capitalising on opportunities for growth and development. SWOT analysis, an acronym for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, is a simple and flexible strategic tool that is used to gather in-depth knowledge from people familiar with a particular industry or business and to initiate long-term strategic planning [29]. In recent years, SWOT analysis has grown in popularity and has been applied in marine and freshwater fisheries aiming to improve fisheries’ management by incorporating stakeholders’ knowledge and opinions as well as FEK [30,31,32,33,34].

In order to achieve sustainable transformative changes and deep structural shifts in the fisheries sector, the SESs have to be taken into consideration. The current study aimed to (i) identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the fisheries sector in Cyprus and (ii) provide strategic recommendations for the overall improvement and sustainability of the sector based on the identified needs.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of the Participatory Fishing Fleets

A participatory workshop, with 30 fishers from the small-scale fisheries (SSF) and six fishers from the large pelagic fisheries (LPF), together with four scientists (authors of the current study), was conducted in November 2023 in Cyprus. The participants were active professional fishers (all male) from all the geographical regions of the Republic of Cyprus. The SSF is composed of wooden boats and operates only in Cypriot waters (GSA25) by mainly using bottom set nets and bottom longlines, targeting demersal species. The LPF is composed of wooden boats (with one exception made of metal) and operates around Cypriot waters by using pelagic drifting longlines to target albacore tuna, swordfish and bluefin tuna, and inshore by using bottom set nets and bottom longlines.

Table 1. Characteristics, license type specifications, management instruments and further information of fishing fleets that participated in the study. Modified from Prellezo et al. (2022) and collated with data reported by the Department of Fisheries and Marine Research (2023) [8,9].

Characteristics	Large Pelagic Fishery (n = 6)	Small-Scale Fishery (n = 30)
Vessel type	Vessels using Polyvalent ‘passive’ gear only	Vessels using Polyvalent ‘passive’ gear only
Vessel length	12–18 m	6–12 m
No. of vessels (2020)	36	299
Fleet segment composition (2020)	4%	38%
License type	Special license for tuna or swordfish; A or B	A or B
GFCM Geographical subarea	25	25
Operate	Every day, all year round	Every day, all year round
Management instruments	Effort limitations and technical measures, minimum landing sizes, closed seasons and restriction measures on gear used	Technical measures and restriction measures on gear used, minimum landing sizes, closed seasons
Main fishing gear used	Drifting pelagic longline	Trammel nets, set gillnets and set bottom longlines
Secondary fishing gear used	Trammel nets, set gillnets and set bottom longlines	Traps and hand and pole lines
Target catch	Swordfish and albacore tuna	Demersal and small pelagic species
TACs and quotas (2022)	Swordfish: 50.66 tonnes Albacore tuna: 431.94 tonnes	None
Contribution of fleet segment to the total value of landings (2020)	29% (EUR 1.84 million)	38% (EUR 2.4 million)

summarises the characteristics of the two fishing fleets that the participating fishers represented in the study [8,9]. These two fishing fleets share common characteristics, with the most important being that the LPF is also allowed to operate and fish with the same fishing gear targeting the same species as SSF, thus contributing to the local market with fishery products that can also be harvested by SSF. For this reason, and unless specified, both SSF and LPF will be referred to hereafter as the fishery sector/fishers.

2.2. Data Gathering

The participating fishers were first introduced to the principles of the strategic SWOT analysis to ensure that they understood the differences between the different elements of the analysis. Participatory approaches are considered cost-effective methods and can provide unique data, complementing conventional scientific research and filling important knowledge gaps in the field of study [35]. Additionally, the pre-existing relationship, long-term collaboration and mutual trust between the participating fishers and the scientists were important factors which influenced the clarity and consistency of their responses.

Using sticky notes, fishers were then asked to individually record their ideas and place their notes onto a schematic poster representing the different elements of the analysis. The following questions were raised during the task to facilitate their thinking: strengths; opportunities; weaknesses; threats. To inspire their thinking, fishers were asked to think from a biological, ecological, cultural, political, social and economic perspective. The scientists only intervened during the task to support fishers in identifying if something was a weakness or a threat, as some were confused between the two elements. At the end of the task, identical and similar responses were grouped and the final results were presented and discussed with the fishers during the workshop day. Most fishers faced challenges in recognising the strengths and opportunities within their sector, while finding it relatively simple to identify their weaknesses and threats.

Based on the SWOT analysis findings, fishers and scientists conducted a TOWS matrix analysis together. The TOWS matrix analysis combines the external opportunities and threats with the internal strengths and weaknesses to develop strategic options. Strengths and opportunities (SO) develop strategies that use strengths to maximise opportunities, strengths and threats (ST) develop strategies that use strengths to minimise threats, weaknesses and opportunities (WO) develop strategies to minimise weaknesses by taking advantage of opportunities, and weaknesses and threats (WT) develop strategies that minimise weaknesses and avoid threats [36]. The following questions were raised to facilitate the discussion: SO; ST; WO; WT.

2.3. Data Analysis

Data from the SWOT–TOWS analyses were descriptively presented. A label was attributed to each factor from the SWOT analysis in order to identify the type of each factor. The factor types were identified as ‘Economic’, ‘Technological’, ‘Political’, ‘Environmental’, ‘Socio-cultural’, ‘Legal & Regulatory’, ‘Business structure & Management’ and ‘Equipment & Infrastructure’. The Impact–Effort prioritisation method was used to prioritise the strategic recommendations (SR) identified from the TOWS analysis, based on their potential impact on the fishing sector and on the effort required for their implementation. The effort of implementation was estimated based on the sum of the resources and time required to implement the SRs. A score of ‘Low’, ‘Moderate’ and ‘High’ was assigned to the SRs based on the expected required budget for implementation, ranging from 50,000 to 100,000, 100,000–500,000 and 500,000–1,000,000 EUR, respectively. A score of ‘Low’, ‘Moderate’ and ‘High’ was assigned to the SRs for the required completion time, ranging from 1 to 3, 3–5 and 5–7 years, respectively. Finally, a three-level score (‘Low’, ‘Moderate’ or ‘High’) was assigned to each factor (impact and effort) for each SR. The impact of the SR was estimated based on its expected environmental, social and economic impacts. The effort of implementation and impact of each SR were evaluated and determined based on expert judgement, following the authors’ extensive experience in project development, management, and implementation.

3. Results

Fishers identified 8 strengths, 15 weaknesses, 7 opportunities and 13 threats. There are more weaknesses and threats (65%) than strengths and opportunities (35%) (

Table 2. SWOT analysis of the Cypriot small-scale and large pelagic fishing fleets based on fishers’ knowledge.

Strengths	Factor Category
S1. Long tradition and historical importance	Socio-cultural
S2. Products of high quality and nutritional value	Economic
S3. Locally harvested products	Socio-cultural
S4. Low environmental impact	Environmental
S5. Socially important for local communities	Socio-cultural
S6. Economically important for local communities	Economic
S7. Short supply chain	Business structure and management
S8. Ecological and traditional knowledge	Socio-cultural
Weaknesses	Factor Category
W1. Aged workforce. Low succession rate to younger generations.	Socio-cultural
W2. Low level of education	Socio-cultural
W3. Limited operational and financial capacity	Economic
W4. Limited technological capacity	Technological
W5. Low selectivity of fishing gear	Environmental
W6. Lack of collaboration at different levels, including between fishers themselves.	Socio-cultural
W7. Accidents/diseases that directly affect the fisher’s work	Business structure and management
W8. Lack of promotional activities and marketing strategy	Business structure and management
W9. Low capability of the SSF vessels. SSF is a coastal fishery that is very dependent on weather conditions.	Equipment and Infrastructure
W10. Lack of fish processing industry	Equipment and Infrastructure
W11. Lack of fisheries’ producer organisation	Governance
W12. Majority of fishers are aged and unable to handle and utilise modern equipment	Socio-cultural
W13. No active role in policy- and decision-making process regarding the fisheries sector	Political
W14. Variations in the pricing of SSF products across different regions.	Political
W15. Certain fishers fail to adhere to regulations and engage in illegal fishing practices.	Socio-cultural
Opportunities	Factor Category
O1. Valorisation of non-native species	Economic
O2. Promotion of locally harvested products from LPF and SSF	Governance
O3. Modernisation of vessels to lower energy consumption	Technological
O4. Digitalisation of the fishing sector	Technological
O5. Fishing tourism	Economic
O6. Testing of new, more selective fishing gear	Environmental
O7. Participation in research projects and cooperation with scientists	Socio-cultural
Threats	Factor Category
T1. Depleted biological resources	Environmental
T2. Non-indigenous and invasive species	Environmental
T3. Competition and conflict with recreational fisheries	Political
T4. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing	Governance
T5. Limited fishing grounds	Political
T6. Lack of effective fisheries management from the authorities	Governance
T7. Interactions with marine megafauna	Environmental
T8. Fuel prices significantly increased	Economic
T9. Reduced consumption of fish in the new generation	Socio-cultural
T10. Climate change/extreme weather conditions	Environmental
T11. Pandemics/epidemics	Environmental
T12. Regulatory changes at the EU and national level	Governance
T13. Global economic fluctuations	Political

). The socio-cultural factors represented the highest coverage for the strength and weakness components (50% and 33%, respectively), whereas the environmental factors exhibited the highest coverage for the component of threats (38%) and the technological–economic factors exhibited the highest coverage for the component of opportunities (both for 29%) (Figure 1).

SSF and LPF shared many common strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, some of which are in full agreement. The strengths and weaknesses reported by both SSF and LPF follow a similar trend compared to the opportunities and threats. The results also showed that LPF is more likely to be influenced by external threats than SSF (Figure 2).

Concerning the weaknesses, ageing (W1), low education level (W2) and the lack of fisheries’ producer organisation (W11), as well as the lack of fish processing industry (W10, for the large pelagic fishers), were almost unanimously stated by the participants. The depleted biological resources (T1), non-native and invasive species (T2) and limited fishing grounds (T5) were those unanimously stated as threats. For strengths, the historical importance of SSF (S1), the high-quality (S2) and locally (S3) harvested products were unanimously stated by the participants. With respect to opportunities, the promotion of locally harvested products (O2) and the testing of new, more selective fishing gears (O6) were unanimously stated by all the participants. Information on the percentage coverage of each SWOT factor identified by SSF and LPF is found in the Appendix A 

Table A1. Percentage (%) contribution of each factor of the SWOT analysis identified by small-scale (SSF) and large pelagic (LPF) fisheries.

Strengths	% of Times Reported by SSF	% of Times Reported by LPF
S1. Long tradition and historical importance	100	100
S2. Products of high quality and nutritional value	100	100
S3. Locally harvested products	100	100
S4. Low environmental impact.	73	33
S5. Socially important for local communities	40	0
S6. Economically important for local communities	57	33
S7. Short supply chain	23	17
S8. Ecological and traditional knowledge	30	67
Weaknesses	% of Times Reported by SSF	% of Times Reported by LPF
W1. Aged workforce. Low succession rate to younger generations.	100	100
W2. Low level of education	87	100
W3. Limited operational and financial capacity.	67	50
W4. Limited technological capacity	67	50
W5. Low selectivity of fishing gear	50	33
W6. Lack of collaboration at different levels, including between fishers themselves.	53	83
W7. Accidents/illnesses that directly affect the fisherman’s work	13	33
W8. Lack of promotional activities and marketing strategy	73	83
W9. Low capability of the SSF vessels. SSF is a coastal fishery which is very much dependent on weather conditions.	23	17
W10. Lack of fish processing industry	17	100
W11. Lack of fishers producer’s organisation	90	100
W12. Majority of fishers are aged and unable to handle and utilise modern equipment	73	67
W13. No active role in policy- and decision-making process in regard to the fisheries sector	43	50
W14. Variations in the pricing of SSF products across different regions.	7	0
W15. Certain fishers fail to adhere to regulations and engage in illegal fishing practices.	53	67
Opportunities	% of Times Reported by SSF	% of Times Reported by LPF
O1. Valorisation non-native species	60	33
O2. Promotion of locally harvested products from LPF and SSF	100	100
O3. Modernisation of vessels to lower energy consumption	47	50
O4. Digitalisation of the fishing sector	27	0
O5. Fishing tourism	80	0
O6. Testing of new, more selective fishing gear	87	83
O7. Participation in research projects and cooperation with scientists	10	33
Threats	% of Times Reported by SSF	% of Times Reported by LPF
T1. Depleted biological resources	100	100
T2. Non-indigenous and invasive species	100	100
T3. Competition and conflict with recreational fisheries	100	33
T4. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing	93	33
T5. Limited fishing grounds	100	100
T6. Lack of effective fisheries management from the authorities	80	67
T7. Interactions with marine megafauna	10	0
T8. Fuel prices significantly increased	77	100
T9. Reduced consumption of fish in the new generation	70	100
T10. Climate change/extreme weather conditions	60	33
T11. Pandemics/epidemics	10	100
T12. Regulatory changes at the EU and national level	17	83
T13. Global economic fluctuations	7	100

.

The TOWS analysis identified 12 strategic recommendations (

Table 3. TOWS analysis and strategic recommendations of the Cypriot SSF and LPF sectors. SO = strengths and opportunities; WO = weaknesses and opportunities; WT = weaknesses and threats; ST = strengths and threats.

Strategic Recommendation (SR)	Description	TOWS Matrix
SR1	Development of a labelling system to promote SSF and LPF products based on the sector’s environmental and socio-cultural importance and to ensure the traceability of their products.	SO
SR2	Fish processing factory and storage facilities for the valorisation of native and non-native species.	WO
SR3	Testing and promotion of new fishing gear and practises to increase the selectivity of the fishing activities in terms of target catch and lower environmental impact and interactions with vulnerable species.	WO
SR4	Marketing strategy/marketing campaign to promote locally harvested products to consumers, highlighting the importance of the responsible consumption of local and fresh products with low environmental impact, and to promote the consumption of non-native/invasive species.	WO
SR5	Enforce policing and patrolling to mitigate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing by professional and recreational fishers within and outside of marine protected areas.	WT
SR6	Creation of a fishers’ school/academy to build capability and capacity in the sector to develop fishery-specific skills and gain knowledge on fisheries’ policies, as well as eliminate potential problems related to the adoption of new fishing gear and technological equipment, and the modernisation and digitalisation of the sector.	WO
SR7	Promote the creation of a fisheries’ producer organisation in order to improve market access and the control of SSF and LPF products and improve the corporate spirit and collaboration among fishers.	WO
SR8	Create a fishers’ advisory committee to utilise fishers’ traditional and ecological knowledge and involve fishers in decision-making processes.	WO
SR9	Provide financial incentives and support investments towards the modernisation and digitalisation of the sector and the adoption of more selective fishing gear, as well as vessel modifications to access opportunities in fishing tourism.	WO
SR10	Provide financial aid to support increases in fuel prices, economic loss due to interactions with marine megafauna, invasive species, pandemics/epidemics and global economic fluctuations.	WT
SR11	Support scientific research to study the impact of SSF and LPF on marine ecosystems and resources, the impact of climate change and non-native species’ impact on coastal fisheries, as well as the interactions between professional coastal fisheries and recreational fisheries.	ST
SR12	Improve data collection programme to collect detailed information on the fishing activity and catches of SSF and recreational fisheries.	WT

) of which the first five (SR1–SR5) were highly recommended by all fishers.

Table 4. Effort of implementation (resources and time) of the 12 strategic recommendations identified in Table 3 based on their required resources and time of implementation.

Strategic Recommendation (SR)	Resources of Implementation	Time of Implementation	Implementation Effort
SR1	Moderate	Moderate	Moderate
SR2	High	Moderate	High
SR3	Moderate	Low	Moderate
SR4	Moderate	Moderate	Moderate
SR5	High	High	High
SR6	High	Low	Moderate
SR7	Low	Low	Low
SR8	Low	Low	Low
SR9	High	High	High
SR10	Moderate	Moderate	Moderate
SR11	High	High	High
SR12	Low	Moderate	Moderate

shows the effort of implementation of each strategic recommendation. The SRs 1–6, 10 and 11 were identified as high-impact SRs and SRs 7–9 and 12 were identified as medium-impact SRs.

The Impact–Effort matrix analysis identified three strategic recommendations as ‘major projects’. These include strategies of high effort and high value that require careful planning and execution. The analysis also identified six ‘quick wins’ strategies that are worth pursuing, as they require low to medium effort but have a high impact. Three ‘fill-ins’ strategies were identified, which are strategies that require low effort of implementation but may not be worth it, as their value is minimal (Figure 3).

4. Discussion

The SWOT analysis revealed that the Cypriot fishing sector is currently struggling for survival, which is in agreement with the current status of Cyprus’s biological resources [33]. The multitude and diverse weaknesses and threats of the sector outnumber its strengths, which in turn limit access to opportunities. The socio-cultural factor emerged as the main constraint but also as the main strength of the sector. Many of the identified factors are interlinked, potentially causing a domino effect, as one factor can influence others. The strategic recommendations proposed in the current study are focused on significantly improving the overall performance and the sector’s environmental, social and economic sustainability. Based on the available literature, government reports and the country’s data, we aimed to understand and justify each factor identified by the fishers and attempted to stimulate ideas and initiatives for future actions.

4.1. Strengths

Over the past decade, there has been a growing acknowledgment of the importance and potential of SSF. The main strength of the participating fishing fleets lies within their longstanding tradition and history, which have significant cultural and social importance and have influenced the sector’s success throughout time. Currently, SSF in the Mediterranean and Black Sea comprise 82% of the fishing fleet and 61% of total onboard employment, but account only for 15% of the total catch [37], demonstrating their high social value and low environmental impact. The fisheries sector on the island is particularly important to the micro economy of coastal communities, offering direct and indirect employment and supporting small family businesses such as fishers, fishmongers, gear development and repair, vessel repair and construction, fishing tourism and the distribution and selling of seafood products [9]. The supply of high-quality and nutritionally valuable products adds to the economic value and overall economic sustainability of the sector, as well as enhancing food security [38,39]. Additionally, the short distribution channels help to ensure faster delivery and fresher, locally harvested seafood products [9].

Fishing gears used by SSF and LPF (bottom set nets, bottom set longlines, traps) are considered environmentally sustainable, with low impact on the seabed and a low carbon footprint, and align with the growing global concerns about environmental sustainability and the reduction of carbon emissions [40,41]. However, this might not always be the case, as their impact on non-targeted species (bycatch and discards) might be higher than previously thought [42,43].

Fishers also have considerable ecological and traditional knowledge that can be leveraged to improve the management and sustainability of the sector when combined with scientific knowledge [44]. Incorporating FEK can lead to a deeper understanding of SESs and foster an inclusive environment for exploring alternative ways of understanding and adapting to change. Including FEK as well as the active participation of fisheries in the decision-making process can ensure that the management measures taken reflect reality and the local circumstances [45]. However, this local fishing knowledge is lost as the younger generations slowly abandon fishing, as it is not considered an economically viable activity [46], which in turn has direct consequences on human societies and the environment, as well as on the relations between people and their place, community and the environment [46,47,48].

These characteristics enable the fishery sector to naturally adapt to ecological and economic changes, which is crucial for mitigating their impacts. This adaptability also allows the sector to respond and adapt to shifts in environmental conditions and market dynamics, thereby enhancing its resilience and sustainability [34,49].

4.2. Weaknesses

The weaknesses reported here highlight various sector constraints and the vulnerable position of fishers and their families. This leads to an abandonment of the profession by both existing fishers and younger generations reluctant to enter.

The ageing population and low succession rate in the Cypriot fisheries [46] pose a threat to the long-term viability of the sector. As a result, there was a 6% reduction in the number of SSF vessels during the period between 2008 and 2019 [9]. New generations pursue higher education, and fishing is perceived as a less practical option due to profit margins [50]. This undermines the sustainability of the fisheries sector and the revitalisation of rural areas. Fishing is a source of identity for the individual and local communities that depend on fisheries, like the study areas. In many cases, fishers continue to fish even when facing extremely low productivity [51]. An enhanced succession rate can offer professional opportunities to vulnerable social groups, such as unemployed youth and women.

The low level of education and the limited operational, technological and financial capacity of the fisheries sector hinder the adoption of modern technologies, which could lead to improved and more selective and sustainable fishing practices, as well as to more fuel-efficient engines and modernised vessels. Improved vessels and modern technologies, such as electronic monitoring systems (EMS), GPS navigation and fish finders, can improve efficiency, safety at sea and the sustainability of fishing practices. These constrains limit fishers’ ability to access new fishing grounds in deeper waters and away from the coastal zone, where they can benefit from unexploited fish stocks and reduce their impact on the currently exploited stocks.

The low level of education may prevent collaboration at different levels of the fisheries sector, leading to a lack of long-term planning across the board for the fishery sector, which puts the sector in danger [52]. The lack of collaboration may be also due to the mode of governance and power dynamics in the Cypriot fisheries sector, where a top-down approach is followed and decision-making is carried out solely by those in power [53]. Strengthening collaboration among fishers and stakeholders as well as fishers’ involvement in policy and decision-making process is essential for ensuring the sector’s success. Participatory governance and bottom-up approach mechanisms, such as co-management arrangements and stakeholder consultations, can ensure that fishers’ knowledge, needs and opinions are considered in decision-making processes.

The low selectivity of the fishing gear currently used in both SSF and LPF may lead to significant quantities of unwanted catches, which are usually discarded dead back to the sea [43]. The fishing operations by SSF and LPF may also lead to the incidental capture of sensitive species, including threatened, endangered and critically endangered species such as elasmobranch, turtles and marine mammals [42,43,54].

Fishers also reported that accidents and diseases are factors that may significantly affect their profession. A study conducted on small-scale fishers from Greece showed that 70% of the study sample had experienced at least one occupational accident in their career. The study also showed that the diseases observed (musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, visual, hearing, dermatologic and respiratory problems) are related to work conditions onboard, diet, smoking, alcohol and lack of exercise [55]. Especially in the case of SSF, the boat’s owner is also the captain and the fisher, and any health issue or accident that may occur can disrupt fishing operations.

The absence of promotional activities and a cohesive marketing strategy plan for locally harvested fishery products also limits the visibility and the competitiveness of Cypriot fisheries products among other seafood products. The widespread presence of farmed salmon and frozen fish products such as cod is a clear indication of the impact of globalised markets in the Mediterranean, which overshadows and devalues the locally harvested fishery products [56]. Products from SSF as well as LPF (in this case) get mixed up in the market with products from industrial fisheries, aquaculture and in many cases from recreational and illegal fishing [57] (Pascual-Fernandez et al., 2020), leading to a lack of traceability for SSF and LPF products [56] and marginalising the SSF in the market [56,57,58,59].

Fishers also mentioned that the consumption of fish products has decreased in the younger generations. This is in agreement with Cyprus’s statistics [26], which show that young people (15–24) are less inclined to consume fish. The three most important purchasing factors influencing fish consumption in Cyprus are the product’s appearance and the cost and the origin of the product. A similar trend in low local fish consumption was shown in other Mediterranean countries [60,61,62].

The absence of a fisheries producers’ organisation in Cyprus is eliminating their bargaining power as well as their collective power in policy discussions and decision-making. Fishers sell the products to intermediaries and middlemen and not directly to consumers, which favours the interests of fish brokers, fish processors, agents and retailers, positioning fishers at the weakest place in the value chain [63]. Introducing pricing mechanisms that reflect production expenses and align with quality standards and market demand could stabilise fishery products’ prices and ensure equitable profits to fishers.

4.3. Threats

Since 1995, the total catches in the Cypriot fisheries have declined by 43 percent (reported FAO data), indicating the critical state of the fisheries sector. The depleted biological resources, as identified in this study, directly affect the livelihoods of small-scale fisheries [37,64]. The fishers who participated in the current study unanimously indicated that non-indigenous species (NIS) are amongst the major biological threats to the sector. NIS in the Mediterranean Sea have also caused various impacts on ecosystems, human health, fisheries and the economy [65]. In Cyprus, the proportion of NIS in the total fish composition was estimated at 18 percent [3]. More recently, Papageorgiou and Moutopoulos (2023) [43] estimated that 74 percent of the discard composition in the Cypriot small-scale fisheries were NIS. The silver-cheeked toadfish (Lagocephalus sceleratus), the lionfish (Pterois miles) and the marbled and dusky spinefoots are considered amongst the worst fish invasions in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Conflicts between small-scale and recreational fisheries have also been documented in the Mediterranean [66,67]. These conflicts may arise due to competition for the same biological resources and fishing grounds, the lack of restrictions and effective management on the activities carried out by recreational fishers and those recreational fishers who may illegally sell their catch to restaurants [53], which goes unreported and unregulated. Marine recreational fisheries have also been responsible for contributing to the decline of several commercial and vulnerable species, and for causing negative impacts on marine ecosystems [50,68,69]. The overall annual catch in weight and value of recreational fisheries in Cyprus exceeded those of coastal commercial fisheries, highlighting the impact on local fish stocks [69]. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing is an activity that is engaged in by both professional and recreational fishers [70,71] and has been reported as an important threat to the sustainability of biological resources by the participating fishers of the study. Τhe engagement of professional fishers in illegal fishing practices (including the participants) undermines conservation efforts and threatens the sustainability of biological resources and marine ecosystems [72].

Over the past 25 years, marine tourism, maritime transport, fishing and marine aquaculture, hydrocarbon exploration and offshore energy production, raw materials (desalination plants) and the creation of ports and marinas [2], as well as military exercises, are the main activities undertaken in the coastal zone of Cyprus. The division of the island in 1974 resulted in the migration of 300 Greek–Cypriot fishers from the north of the island to the south, leading to further fishing space constraints and an increased fishing effort in the southern region [7,53]. Regarding space limitations, the initiation of marine aquaculture in Cyprus took place in the late 1980s to early 1990s, which has resulted in the current presence of nine open-sea aquaculture fish farms [73], leading to further space constraints for SSF. In addition, the recent establishment of several Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the coastal zone further limits the fishing ground of coastal fisheries, often leading to conflicts over access to space and resources with other users of the sea, including recreational fishers.

Interactions between marine megafauna (e.g., marine mammals, elasmobranchs, turtles, seabirds) and fisheries have been reported worldwide, in almost all existing fishing gears, leading to negative consequences for fisheries’ economics and the conservation of the species involved [74]. In Cyprus, interactions between fisheries and marine megafauna have been reported for small-scale [54,75] and pelagic longline [42] fisheries, and are responsible for causing significant economic loss to fishers, as well as injury and mortality to the species interacting with the fishing operations. The participating fishers (especially LPF) of the current study have repeatedly mentioned this issue as one of the main reasons for economic loss from their fishing operations.

It is also critical to comprehend how weather variations impact SSF fishing operations, as climate change is predicted to intensify and increase the frequency of severe weather [76,77]. However, there is still a lack of knowledge on how small-scale fishers are impacted by weather fluctuations. The increase in adverse weather conditions would reduce fishers’ access to essential resources and fishing grounds required for the security of their income. Strategies for adapting to climate change will need to take changing weather patterns into consideration when determining fishing availability.

Other external threats, such as increases in fuel prices [78], pandemics and epidemics [79], regulatory changes and global economic fluctuations [78], are global threats, directly or indirectly impacting many different business sectors and the livelihoods of many people.

4.4. Opportunities

The weaknesses and threats outlined above can be mitigated and avoided through the transformation of how the sector and the market currently operate, such as the differentiation of the SSF and LPF products, market diversification and value chain development, the modernisation of vessels, digital transformation, sustainable fishing gear and the application of alternative business models. Locally harvested fishery products that derive from SSF (and in this case LPF) usually have higher value compared to products sourced from industrial fishing, since they are caught with more selective and sustainable fishing gear [40]. Enhancing education is a prosperous opportunity for the sector to ensure that young people who want to fish are adequately trained and informed. Young people can support the growth and social cohesiveness of their local communities, particularly in the most remote coastal and island areas, as well as those with the fewest employment options. Well-educated fishers are also less likely to have an accident at work, which seemed to be evaluated as a serious weakness in the present study and is common in Cypriot waters.

Successful marketing initiatives so far aimed at strengthening the identity of the fishery community [59] and empowered SSF to become an active stakeholder in the decision-making process and policymaking [80]. For example, fishers’ guilds (Cofradías) in Galicia, Spain, have taken the initiative to directly sell their products to customers, and developed a certification system for their products, which increased the overall product value and consumer acceptance [45].

Another opportunity, especially for coastal fisheries in the Eastern Mediterranean, is the valorisation of NIS. Given the increasing diversity, abundance and biomass of NIS in the Mediterranean Sea [81,82,83,84], NIS can provide an additional and important source of income to coastal fisheries [3,82,85]. The records of NIS in Cyprus were from almost a century ago, including among them highly priced fish, such as the rabbitfish (Siganus spp.) and the Yellowstripe barracuda (Sphyraena chrysotaenia) [3,85]. More recently, the Bluespotted cornetfish (Fistularia commersonii), the lionfish (P. miles) and the Red Sea goatfish (Parupeneus forsskali) entered the market, not among the highly commercial species, at a price of about €3–4 per kilogram (price might vary slightly between different regions). Another example from Cyprus is the targeted fishery of the toxic and inedible Silver-checked toadfish (L. sceleratus), where under a government programme aiming to mitigate the species’ impact on marine ecosystems, fishers are compensated €3 per kilogram (increased to €4.73 from 2024) to fish the invasive pufferfish. Fish consumers are encouraged to try new fish products when they are listed on restaurant menus, and this trend would be furthered by their promotion on cooking-related TV shows [86]. Several consumer education campaigns focused on alien species could maximise the added value produced locally, which can also be achieved through protecting native species and the maritime environment to maintain sustainable local fisheries.

Another crucial step in achieving financial and environmental sustainability is the modernisation of the vessels and fishing gear. By implementing innovative technologies to reduce energy consumption, such as renewable energy sources or by changing to more efficient engines, fishery vessels can reduce operational costs and reduce their environmental impact and carbon footprint [87]. Such innovations have also been observed in other Mediterranean SSF, in which fishers have gradually switched to using more advanced fishing equipment [88]. Examples of innovative fishing gear for SSF include the blue crab traps, which have been successfully used in Tunisia to target the blue crab [89] and the ‘Gittings trap’ for the lionfish [90], as well as other fishing gear currently used in the Mediterranean Sea [91]. In the case of the LPF, the trolling fishing technique [92] is an alternative method to target albacore tuna, and is considered way more selective compared to the drifting pelagic longlines, with no bycatch of non-targeted species and depredation by odontocetes [42].

Fishing tourism provides an alternative opportunity for SSF to increase their income and improve their financial sustainability while reducing their environmental impact and maximising the benefits of sustainable tourism development [93]. Fishing tourism provides an opportunity to raise awareness about sustainable fishing practices, SSF products, the social importance of SSF to local fishing communities and the longstanding fishing cultural heritage of the region [94]. In Cyprus, fishing tourism has been promoted by national authorities, and relevant actions have been taken to provide the necessary incentives and training to SSFs to take advantage of this economic opportunity. However, there are still several constraints, including policy and legislation, SSF vessel suitability to accommodate people onboard (old and small boats, outdated equipment and facilities), as well as socio-cultural aspects such as a lack of willingness and motivation by fishers to participate in such activities, considering the age and low educational level issues discussed above.

Emphasising the need to take the social part into account when assessing and managing traditional fisheries [95], illegal fishery might be remedied through the support of the new EU policy that enhances the role of fishers as guardians of the sea [96]. Professional fishers may build auto-control systems [72] by using their expertise in fisheries’ management [97], which is also backed by the coast guard authority, hence creating monitoring systems for ecosystem services [98]. In this instance, the fishers are involved in advisory capacities regarding management matters and/or through power delegation and sharing. One noteworthy example is the fishers who choose to leave the industry, since they can still be vital sea stewards by using their expertise and experience in fisheries’ control enforcement and surveillance.

4.5. A Roadmap for Improving the Sector’s Sustainability and Competitiveness

The 12 strategic recommendations provide a holistic approach to addressing the challenges and advancing the sustainable development of the fisheries sector in Cyprus. By implementing the proposed strategic initiatives, the sector is expected to fortify its strengths, minimise its weaknesses, access more opportunities and become resilient towards threats. The proposed SRs also align with the regional plan of action for small-scale fisheries in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea [99], and the GFCM 2030 Strategy for sustainable fisheries and aquaculture in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea [100].

For each SR, careful planning, execution and monitoring is required. The five main stages of a project life cycle (initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and closure) are recommended as a roadmap in achieving the proposed SRs. At the initiation stage, the SRs have to be identified and their expected impact and effort of implementation needs to be estimated. The specific goals and objectives of each SR need to be identified, as well as the main stakeholders involved. This stage requires close collaboration with and the involvement of the fishing sector. At the planning stage, the specific activities and tasks, deliverables and outcomes, timelines, a detailed budget, and risk analysis and management need to be developed. Here, the project team and partners are primarily responsible for developing the project plan, and minimal involvement is required from the fishers. The execution stage is where the project is brought to life. The project team and partners need to work together and in collaboration with the fishing sector to achieve the project’s objectives and deliver the best possible results. The monitoring stage requires careful monitoring of the project progress to ensure that the activities are on track and within the timeline, the resources are properly used and managed, and any potential risks are prevented or mitigated. The monitoring should be conducted by the project team, but the fishers have to stay informed and updated about the project progress. At the closure stage, the project has to be completed, the objectives need to be achieved and the proposed products have to be delivered. It is important at this stage to analyse the results, reflect on the final project achievements and summarise the key learnings in order to repeat the best practices and avoid bad practices in future projects (Figure 4). The implementation of each SR requires a commitment from all potential parties involved, including the local government and responsible authorities, fishers and fishers’ associations, civil society and non-governmental organisations, as well as the private sector. It is recommended that at every stage of the roadmap of each SR, the fishers are involved in one way or another, are informed about the project progress and achievements, and the outcomes are communicated with them. Transparency and fishers’ participation in the project will enhance trust and collaboration and increase project acceptance among the fishers.

5. Conclusions

Considering the current state of the Cypriot fisheries sector, incremental or transformative changes [101] in the structure, governance, processes and social norms are required in order to achieve reconfigurations in the political, social, economic and environmental aspects of fisheries’ SESs [45,102]. Such profound changes also require fishers to comply and adapt to these transformative changes, which otherwise may produce undesired outcomes and slow or stop the process of transformation [103]. Additionally, the benefits of transformative changes may require a long time to appear, due to the high time of implementation and the need for financial resources, which may be a reason for receiving low social and political support [104]. It is also expected that, during the process of transformation, frictions and contested reactions will occur among the actors as the change occurs in a complex, non-linear and dynamic SES [102]. Finally, the study also highlights the importance of incorporating fisher’s knowledge, participatory governance and co-management approaches, as well as social and economic factors in fisheries’ management.