Effects of Swimming Exercise on Early Adolescents’ Physical Conditioning and Physical Health: A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Eligibility Criteria
2.2. Search Strategy
2.3. Selection Process and Data Extraction
2.4. Study Risk of Bias
3. Results
3.1. Study Selection
3.2. Study Characteristics
3.3. Main Findings Regarding Physical Conditioning Outcomes
3.4. Main Findings Regarding Physical Health Outcomes
3.5. Risk of Bias
4. Discussion
4.1. Main Findings on Physical Conditioning
4.2. Main Findings on Physical Health
4.3. Limitations and Future Research
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- World Health Organization. Constitution of the World Health Organization. Am. J. Public Health Nation Health 1946, 36, 769–773. [Google Scholar]
- Blackwell, C.K.; Wakschlag, L.S.; Gershon, R.C.; Cella, D. Measurement Framework for the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes Research Program. Curr. Opin. Pediatr. 2018, 30, 698–705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amzat, J.; Razum, O. Health, Disease, and Illness as Conceptual Tools. Med. Sociol. Afr. 2014, 1, 55–70. [Google Scholar]
- Purcell, J.S.; Hergenroeder, A.C. Physical Conditioning in Adolescents. Curr. Opin. Pediatr. 1994, 6, 449–453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Janz, K.F.; Dawson, J.D.; Mahoney, L.T. Tracking Physical Fitness and Physical Activity from Childhood to Adolescence: The Muscatine Study. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1999, 31, 1246–1252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raudsepp, L.; Neissaar, I.; Kull, M. Longitudinal Stability of Sedentary Behaviors and Physical Activity During Early Adolescence. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 2008, 20, 162–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Huotari, P.; Nupponen, H.; Mikkelsson, L.; Laakso, L.; Kujala, U. Adolescent Physical Fitness and Activity as Predictors of Adulthood Activity. J. Sports Sci. 2011, 29, 367–374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lopes, V.P.; Maia, J.A.R.; Rodrigues, L.P.; Malina, R. Motor Coordination, Physical Activity and Fitness as Predictors of Longitudinal Change in Adiposity during Childhood. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2012, 12, 438–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sawyer, S.M.; Azzopardi, P.S.; Wickremarathne, D.; Patton, G.C. The Age of Adolescence. Lancet Child Adolesc. Health 2018, 2, 223–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blum, R.W.; Astone, N.M.; Decker, M.R.; Mouli, V.C. A Conceptual Framework for Early Adolescence: A Platform for Research. J. Adolesc. Health 2014, 55, 271–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- OECD; WHO. Step Up! Tackling the Burden of Insufficient Physical Activity in Europe; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2023. [Google Scholar]
- Inchley, J.; Currie, D.; Budisavljevic, S.; Torsheim, T.; Jåstad, A.; Cosma, A.; Kelly, C.; Arnarsson, Á.M.; Samdal, O. Spotlight on Adolescent Health and Well-Being. In Findings from the 2017/2018 Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) Survey in Europe and Canada. International Report. Volume 2: Key Data; WHO Regional Office for Europe: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Nystoriak, M.A.; Bhatnagar, A. Cardiovascular Effects and Benefits of Exercise. Front. Cardiovasc. Med. 2018, 5, 135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rodriguez, A.; Korzeniowska, K.; Szarejko, K.; Borowski, H.; Brzeziński, M.; Myśliwiec, M.; Czupryniak, L.; Berggren, P.O.; Radziwiłł, M.; Soszyński, P. Fitness, Food, and Biomarkers: Characterizing Body Composition in 19,634 Early Adolescents. Nutrients 2022, 14, 1451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jebeile, H.; Kelly, A.S.; O’Malley, G.; Baur, L.A. Obesity in Children and Adolescents: Epidemiology, Causes, Assessment, and Management. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2022, 10, 753–768. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wassenaar, T.M.; Wheatley, C.M.; Beale, N.; Nichols, T.; Salvan, P.; Meaney, A.; Atherton, K.; Diaz-Ordaz, K.; Dawes, H.; Johansen-Berg, H. The Effect of a One-Year Vigorous Physical Activity Intervention on Fitness, Cognitive Performance and Mental Health in Young Adolescents: The Fit to Study Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2021, 18, 59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Osborn, W.; Simm, P.; Olds, T.; Lycett, K.; Mensah, F.K.; Muller, J.; Fraysse, F.; Ismail, N.; Vlok, J.; Burgner, D.; et al. Bone Health, Activity and Sedentariness at Age 11–12 Years: Cross-Sectional Australian Population-Derived Study. Bone 2018, 114, 37–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fung, H.; Yeo, B.T.T.; Chen, C.; Lo, J.C.; Chee, M.W.L.; Ong, J.L. Adherence to 24-Hour Movement Recommendations and Health Indicators in Early Adolescence: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Associations in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study. J. Adolesc. Health 2023, 73, 578–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Booth, J.N.; Ness, A.R.; Joinson, C.; Tomporowski, P.D.; Boyle, J.M.; Leary, S.D.; Reilly, J.J. Associations Between Physical Activity and Mental Health and Behaviour in Early Adolescence. Ment. Health Phys. Act. 2023, 28, 100556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 2nd ed.; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Washington, DC, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Storm, M.K.; Williams, K.N.; Shetter, E.M.; Kaminsky, J.; Lowery, C.M.; Caldas, S.V.; Winch, P.J. Sink or Swim: Promoting Youth Development through Aquatics Programs in Baltimore, Maryland. J. Park Recreat. Adm. 2017, 35, 185–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Costa, M.J.; Balasekaran, G.; Vilas-Boas, J.P.; Barbosa, T.M. Physiological Adaptations to Training in Competitive Swimming: A Systematic Review. J. Hum. Kinet. 2015, 49, 151–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lahart, I.M.; Metsios, G.S. Chronic Physiological Effects of Swim Training Interventions in Non-Elite Swimmers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2018, 48, 2081–2097. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, K.; Hohmann, A.; Chang, Y.; Zhang, B.; Pion, J.; Gao, B. Physiological, Anthropometric, and Motor Characteristics of Elite Chinese Youth Athletes from Six Different Sports. Front. Physiol. 2019, 10, 405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Machado, E.; Jannuzzi, F.; Telles, S.; Oliveira, C.; Madeira, I.; Sicuro, F.; Souza, M.D.G.; Monteiro, A.; Bouskela, E.; Collett-Solberg, P.; et al. A Recreational Swimming Intervention During the Whole School Year Improves Fitness and Cardiometabolic Risk in Children and Adolescents with Overweight and Obesity. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 17093. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Aloulou, A.; Duforez, F.; Léger, D.; De Larochelambert, Q.; Nedelec, M. The Relationships Between Training Load, Type of Sport, and Sleep Among High-Level Adolescent Athletes. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2021, 16, 872–879. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gomez-Bruton, A.; Montero-Marín, J.; González-Agüero, A.; García-Campayo, J.; Moreno, L.A.; Casajús, J.A.; Vicente-Rodríguez, G. The Effect of Swimming During Childhood and Adolescence on Bone Mineral Density: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2016, 46, 1141–1154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sinclair, L.; Roscoe, C.M.P. The Impact of Swimming on Fundamental Movement Skill Development in Children (3–11 Years): A Systematic Literature Review. Children 2023, 10, 1411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, S.; Liu, L.; Li, M.; He, S.; Hu, Y.; Sun, S.; Yan, Y.; Zhao, F.; Cheng, X.; Li, J.; et al. Swimming Behavior Indicates Stress and Adaptations to Exercise. Front. Physiol. 2024, 15, 1357120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Page, M.J.; McKenzie, J.E.; Bossuyt, P.M.; Boutron, I.; Hoffmann, T.C.; Mulrow, C.D.; Shamseer, L.; Tetzlaff, J.M.; Akl, E.A.; Brennan, S.E.; et al. The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews. Br. Med. J. 2021, 372, n71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ferreira, F.A.; Santos, C.C.; Palmeira, A.L.; Fernandes, R.J.; Costa, M.J. Effects of Swimming Exercise on Early Adolescents’ Physical Conditioning and Physical Health: A Protocol for Systematic Review; INPLASY2023100078; INPLASY Protocol: Brasília, Brazil, 2023. [Google Scholar]
- International Symposium on Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming. International Council Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming. Available online: https://www.iat.uni-leipzig.de/datenbanken/iks/bms/ (accessed on 18 December 2023).
- Seo, H.J.; Kim, S.Y.; Lee, Y.J.; Park, J.E. RoBANS 2: A Revised Risk of Bias Assessment Tool for Nonrandomized Studies of Interventions. Korean J. Fam. Med. 2023, 44, 30–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Clarke, D.H.; Vaccaro, P. The Effect of Swimming Training on Muscular Performance and Body Composition in Children. Res. Q. 1979, 50, 9–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McNarry, M.A.; Mackintosh, K.A.; Stoedefalke, K. Longitudinal Investigation of Training Status and Cardiopulmonary Responses in Pre- and Early-Pubertal Children. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2014, 114, 2347–2356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blume, K.; Wolfarth, B. Identification of Potential Performance-Related Predictors in Young Competitive Athletes. Front. Physiol. 2019, 10, 1394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McNarry, M.A.; Lester, L.; Brown, J.; Mackintosh, K.A. Investigating the Modulatory Role of Chronological and Biological Age on Performance Predictors in Youth Swimmers. J. Sci. Sport Exerc. 2020, 2, 21–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zarzeczny, R.; Kuberski, M.; Suliga, E. The Effect of Three-Year Swim Training on Cardio-Respiratory Fitness and Selected Somatic Features of Prepubertal Boys. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 127125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Luchitskaya, E.S.; Rusanov, V.B. Functional Characteristics of Hemodynamics in Adolescents Under the Conditions of Different Motor Activities. Hum. Physiol. 2009, 35, 303–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bielec, G.; Peczak-Graczyk, A.; Waade, B. Do Swimming Exercises Induce Anthropometric Changes in Adolescents? Issues Compr. Pediatr. Nurs. 2013, 36, 313–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ferry, B.; Lespessailles, E.; Rochcongar, P.; Duclos, M.; Courteix, D. Bone Health during Late Adolescence: Effects of an 8-Month Training Program on Bone Geometry in Female Athletes. Jt. Bone Spine 2013, 80, 182–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Batalha, N.; Marmeleira, J.; Garrido, N.; Silva, A.J. Does a Water-Training Macrocycle Really Create Imbalances in Swimmers’ Shoulder Rotator Muscles? Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2015, 15, 549–556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- D’Ascenzi, F.; Solari, M.; Anselmi, F.; Maffei, S.; Focardi, M.; Bonifazi, M.; Mondillo, S.; Henein, M. Atrial Chamber Remodelling in Healthy Pre-Adolescent Athletes Engaged in Endurance Sports: A Study with a Longitudinal Design. The CHILD Study. Int. J. Cardiol. 2016, 222, 813–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gomez-Bruton, A.; Gonzalez-Aguero, A.; Matute-Llorente, A.; Gomez-Cabello, A.; Casajus, J.A.; Vicente-Rodríguez, G. Longitudinal Effects of Swimming on Bone in Adolescents: A pQCT and DXA Study. Biol. Sport 2017, 34, 57–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vlachopoulos, D.; Barker, A.R.; Ubago-Guisado, E.; Fatouros, I.G.; Knapp, K.M.; Williams, C.A.; Gracia-Marco, L. Longitudinal Adaptations of Bone Mass, Geometry, and Metabolism in Adolescent Male Athletes: The PRO-BONE Study. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2017, 32, 1899–1907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bovard, J.M.; Welch, J.F.; Houghton, K.M.; McKenzie, D.C.; Potts, J.E.; Sheel, A.W. Does Competitive Swimming Affect Lung Growth? Physiol. Rep. 2018, 6, e13816. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ubago-Guisado, E.; Vlachopoulos, D.; Fatouros, I.G.; Deli, C.K.; Leontsini, D.; Moreno, L.A.; Courteix, D.; Gracia-Marco, L. Longitudinal Determinants of 12-Month Changes on Bone Health in Adolescent Male Athletes. Arch. Osteoporos. 2018, 13, 94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vlachopoulos, D.; Barker, A.R.; Ubago-Guisado, E.; Ortega, F.B.; Krustrup, P.; Metcalf, B.; Castro Pinero, J.; Ruiz, J.R.; Knapp, K.M.; Williams, C.A.; et al. The Effect of 12-Month Participation in Osteogenic and Non-Osteogenic Sports on Bone Development in Adolescent Male Athletes. The PRO-BONE Study. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2018, 21, 1150–1157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Collins, A.C.; Ward, K.D.; McClanahan, B.S.; Slawson, D.L.; Vukadinovich, C.; Mays, K.E.; Wilson, N.; Relyea, G. Bone Accrual in Children and Adolescent Nonelite Swimmers: A 2-Year Longitudinal Study. Clin. J. Sport Med. 2019, 29, 9–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Agostinete, R.R.; Vlachopoulos, D.; Werneck, A.O.; Maillane-Vanegas, S.; Lynch, K.R.; Naughton, G.; Fernandes, R.A. Bone Accrual over 18 Months of Participation in Different Loading Sports during Adolescence. Arch. Osteoporos. 2020, 15, 13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhao, K.; Hohmann, A.; Faber, I.; Chang, Y.; Gao, B. A 2-Year Longitudinal Follow-Up of Performance Characteristics in Chinese Male Elite Youth Athletes from Swimming and Racket Sports. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0239155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bielec, G.; Gozdziejewska, A.; Makar, P. Changes in Body Composition and Anthropomorphic Measurements in Children Participating in Swimming and Non-Swimming Activities. Children 2021, 8, 529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Costa, D.C.; Valente-Dos-Santos, J.; Sousa-E-Silva, P.; Martinho, D.V.; Duarte, J.P.; Tavares, O.M.; Castanheira, J.M.; Oliveira, T.G.; Abreu, S.; Leite, N.; et al. Growth, Body Composition and Bone Mineral Density among Pubertal Male Athletes: Intra-Individual 12-Month Changes and Comparisons between Soccer Players and Swimmers. BMC Pediatr. 2022, 22, 129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McGuinness, L.A.; Higgins, J.P.T. Risk-of-Bias VISualization (robvis): An R Package and Shiny Web App for Visualizing Risk-of-Bias Assessments. Res. Synth. Methods 2020, 11, 79–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caruana, E.J.; Roman, M.; Hernández-Sánchez, J.; Solli, P. Longitudinal Studies. J. Thorac. Dis. 2015, 7, E537–E540. [Google Scholar]
- Santos, C.C.; Marinho, D.A.; Neiva, H.P.; Costa, M.J. Propulsive Forces in Human Competitive Swimming: A Systematic Review on Direct Assessment Methods. Sports Biomech. 2021, 20, 365–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ruiz-Navarro, J.J.; Gay, A.; Cuenca-Fernández, F.; López-Belmonte, Ó.; Morales-Ortíz, E.; López-Contreras, G.; Arellano, R. The Relationship between Tethered Swimming, Anaerobic Critical Velocity, Dry-Land Strength, and Swimming Performance. Int. J. Perform. Anal. Sport 2022, 22, 323–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Costill, D.L.; Thomas, R.; Robergs, R.A.; Pascoe, D.; Lambert, C.; Barr, S.; Fink, W.J. Adaptations to Swimming Training: Influence of Training Volume. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1991, 23, 371–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mountjoy, M.; Dijkstra, H.P. Swimming in H2O: Two Parts Heart + One Part Obsession. Br. J. Sports Med. 2016, 50, 486–487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Júdice, P.B.; Silva, A.M.; Berria, J.; Petroski, E.L.; Ekelund, U.; Sardinha, L.B. Sedentary Patterns, Physical Activity and Health-Related Physical Fitness in Youth: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2017, 14, 119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bouchard, C. Molecular and Cellular Regulation of Adaptation to Exercise (Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science), 1st ed.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2015; Volume 135. [Google Scholar]
- Sousa, A.; Figueiredo, P.; Zamparo, P.; Pyne, D.B.; Vilas-Boas, J.P.; Fernandes, R.J. Exercise Modality Effect on Bioenergetical Performance at VO2max Intensity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2015, 47, 1688–1696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tuan, S.H.; Chen, G.B.; Chen, C.H.; Chen, Y.J.; Liou, I.H.; Su, Y.T.; Lin, K.L. Comparison of Peak Oxygen Consumption During Exercise Testing Between Sexes Among Children and Adolescents in Taiwan. Front. Pediatr. 2021, 9, 657551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Calbet, J.A.; Lundby, C.; Koskolou, M.; Boushel, R. Importance of Hemoglobin Concentration to Exercise: Acute Manipulations. Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol. 2006, 144, 111–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Astorino, T.A.; Edmunds, R.M.; Clark, A.; King, L.; Gallant, R.M.; Namm, S.; Fischer, A.; Wood, K.A. Increased Cardiac Output and Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Response to Ten Sessions of High Intensity Interval Training. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit. 2018, 58, 1072–1079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steding, K.; Engblom, H.; Buhre, T.; Carlsson, M.; Mosén, H.; Wohlfart, B.; Arheden, H. Relation Between Cardiac Dimensions and Peak Oxygen Uptake. J. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. 2010, 12, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- King, J.; Lowery, D.R. Physiology, Cardiac Output; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, USA, 2023. [Google Scholar]
- Wernstedt, P.; Sjöstedt, C.; Ekman, I.; Du, H.; Thuomas, K.A.; Areskog, N.H.; Nylander, E. Adaptation of Cardiac Morphology and Function to Endurance and Strength Training: A Comparative Study Using MR Imaging and Echocardiography in Males and Females. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 2002, 12, 295–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Turley, K.R. Cardiovascular Responses to Exercise in Children. Sports Med. 1997, 24, 217–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rafailakis, L.; Deli, C.K.; Fatouros, I.G.; Tsiokanos, A.; Draganidis, D.; Poulios, A.; Soulas, D.; Jamurtas, A.Z. Functional and Morphological Adaptations in the Heart of Children Aged 12–14 Years Following Two Different Endurance Training Protocols. Sports 2023, 11, 157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martinez, V.; Sanz de la Garza, M.; Grazioli, G.; Roca, E.; Brotons, D.; Sitges, M. Cardiac Adaptation to Endurance Exercise Training: Differential Impact of Swimming and Running. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2021, 21, 190–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Elamin, A.B.A.; Forsat, K.; Senok, S.S.; Goswami, N. Vagus Nerve Stimulation and Its Cardioprotective Abilities: A Systematic Review. J. Clin. Med. 2023, 12, 1717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Capilupi, M.J.; Kerath, S.M.; Becker, L.B. Vagus Nerve Stimulation and the Cardiovascular System. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med. 2020, 10, a034173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pinckard, K.; Baskin, K.K.; Stanford, K.I. Effects of Exercise to Improve Cardiovascular Health. Front. Cardiovasc. Med. 2019, 6, 69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Laframboise, M.A.; Degraauw, C. The Effects of Aerobic Physical Activity on Adiposity in School-Aged Children and Youth: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. J. Can. Chiropr. Assoc. 2011, 55, 256–268. [Google Scholar]
- Webster, E.K.; Sur, I.; Stevens, A.; Robinson, L.E. Associations Between Body Composition and Fundamental Motor Skill Competency in Children. BMC Pediatr. 2021, 21, 58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lima, R.A.; Pfeiffer, K.; Larsen, L.R.; Bugge, A.; Moller, N.C.; Anderson, L.B.; Stodden, D.F. Physical Activity and Motor Competence Present a Positive Reciprocal Longitudinal Relationship Across Childhood and Early Adolescence. J. Phys. Act. Health 2017, 14, 281–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burton, A.M.; Cowburn, I.; Thompson, F.; Eisenmann, J.C.; Nicholson, B.; Till, K. Associations Between Motor Competence and Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Psychosocial Characteristics in Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2023, 53, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Costa, J.A.; Vale, S.; Rodrigues, L.P.; Brito, J.; Seabra, A. A School-Based Physical Activity Intervention in Primary School: Effects on Physical Activity, Sleep, Aerobic Fitness and Motor Competence. Front. Public Health 2024, 12, 1365782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Freitas, L.; Bezerra, A.; Amorim, T.; Fernandes, R.J.; Duarte, J.; Fonseca, H. Is Competitive Swimming Training a Risk Factor for Osteoporosis? A Systematic Review of the Literature and Quality of Evidence. Ger. J. Exerc. Sport Res. 2023, 53, 283–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilczyński, J. Asymmetries of the Shoulder and Pelvic Girdles in Girls with Scoliosis and Scoliotic Posture. Med. Stud. Studia Med. 2013, 29, 152–159. [Google Scholar]
- Andrew, G.M.; Becklake, M.R.; Guleria, J.S.; Bates, D.V. Heart and Lung Functions in Swimmers and Nonathletes During Growth. J. Appl. Physiol. 1972, 32, 245–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hibbert, M.; Lannigan, A.; Raven, J.; Landau, L.; Phelan, P. Gender Differences in Lung Growth. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 1995, 20, 124–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Framework | Inclusion Criteria | Exclusion Criteria |
---|---|---|
Population (P) | Healthy adolescents aged between 10–15 years old (inclusive) | All spectrum of disabled adolescents; Practitioners from other aquatic activities (i.e., triathlon, water polo, artistic swimming, water aerobics) |
Intervention (I) | Swimming interventions or training programmes | Combined interventions (e.g., swimming and other physical activities or supplementation), where the effects of swimming could not be isolated |
Comparison (C) | Passive control groups and/or placebo (not exposed to other interventions and just keep the physical education classes) or active control groups regarding other sports | Comparison between different methods of regular swimming or additional dry-land methods aiming performance |
Outcome (O) | Published studies that measured the effects on general physical conditioning and physical health | Studies aiming for performance outcome during sport-specific exercise (e.g., maximal oxygen uptake, stroke rate, speed) |
Study design (SD) | Randomized and non-randomized longitudinal designs | Cross-sectional designs |
Author, Year (Country) | Sample Characteristics (Baseline) | Intervention * | Assessed Domains | Main Findings | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Group (Context) | Sex n = Age (Years) | Period (Months) | Weekly Frequency (Per Session) | |||
Clarke & Vaccaro, 1979 [34] (United States of America) | Swimming (Training) | ♂♀ n = 15 9.68 ± 0.71 | 7 | four sessions (3.7–9.1 km) | Anthropometry Muscular Strength Muscular endurance | Swimming: ↑ Muscular endurance → Muscular strength → Body composition |
Control (Nonathletes) | ♂♀ n = 15 10.28 ± 0.55 | ------- | ||||
McNarry et al., 2014 [35] (United Kingdom) | Swimming (Training) | ♂♀ n = 19 10.4 ± 1.1 | 36 | NA (6 ± 3 h) | Anthropometry Maturation Training status | Swimming: ↑ VO2 peak due to ↑ Q |
Control (Nonathletes) | ♂♀ n = 15 9.8 ± 0.9 | ------- | ||||
Blume & Wolfarth, 2018 [36] (Germany) | Swimming (Training) | ♂♀ n = 18 ♂ 14.7 ± 1.6 ♀ 15.1 ± 1.0 | 12 | ♂ 14.2 ± 8.1 h (NA) ♀ 17.0 ± 4.5 h (NA) | Performance | Sport-specific skills: Do not express aerobic performance |
Cross-Country Skiing (Training) | ♂♀ n = 35 ♂ 15.7 ± 1.2 ♀ 16.1 ± 1.4 | ♂ 10.6 ± 3.7 h (NA) ♀ 11.7 ± 3.7 h (NA) | ||||
Soccer (Training) | ♀ n = 45 13.8 ± 1.4 | 9.6 ± 2.8 h (NA) | ||||
Cyclist (Training) | ♂♀ n = 48 ♂ 13.6 ± 2.0 ♀15.2 ± 1.4 | ♂ 12.2 ± 3.8 h (NA) ♀ 14.2 ± 4.5 h (NA) | ||||
McNarry et al., 2020 [37] (United Kingdom) | Swimming (Training) | ♂♀ n = 28 G1: 11.3 ± 1.6 G2: 14.8 ± 1.6 | 6 | G1: NA (10.5 ± 3.3 h) G2: NA (16.4 ± 1.4 h) | Maturation Aerobic Strength Performance | Swimming: No aerobic or strength maturational thresholds presented |
Control (Nonathletes) | ♂♀ n = 26 G1: 9.7 ± 1.5 G2: 14.4 ± 0.5 | ------- | ||||
Zarzeczny et al., 2022 [38] (Poland) | Swimming (Recreational) | ♀ n = 20 10.47 ± 0.30 | 36 | two sessions (45 min) | CRF Anthropometry | Swimming: ↑ CRF |
Control (Nonathletes) | ♀ n = 20 10.52 ± 0.31 | ------- |
Author, Year (Country) | Sample Characteristics (Baseline) | Intervention * | Assessed Domains | Main Findings | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Group (Context) | Sex n = Age (Years) | Period (Months) | Weekly Frequency (Per Session) | |||
Luchitskaya & Rusanov, 2009 [39] (Russia) | Swimming (Training) | ♂♀ n = 42 15–16 | 8 | six sessions (2.5 ± 0.5 h) | Central and cerebral haemodynamics Heart rate variability | Swimming: ↑ Regulation of blood circulation ↑ Stability of circulatory system ↑ Heart rate variability |
Control (Nonathletes) | ♂♀ n = 96 15–16 | ------- | ||||
Bielec et al., 2013 [40] (Poland) | Swimming (Recreational) | ♂♀ n = 116 13.4 ± 0.3 | 24 | one session (45 min) | Anthropometry Postural deficit occurrence | Swimming: → Anthropometry → Scapula asymetry |
Control (Nonathletes) | ♂♀ n = 114 13.4 ± 0.3 | ------- | ||||
Ferry et al., 2013 [41] (France) | Swimming (Training) | ♀ n = 26 15.9 ± 1.9 | 8 | five sessions (120 min) | Hip structural BMC BMD | Swimming: → Bone health |
Soccer (Training) | ♀ n = 15 16.2 ± 0.7 | five sessions (120 min) | ||||
Control (Nonathletes) | ♀ n = 32 16.3 ± 1.2 | ------- | ||||
Batalha et al., 2014 [42] (Portugal) | Swimming (Training) | ♂ n = 27 14.48 ± 0.50 | 4 | 6.75 ± 0.86 sessions (126 ± 26.39 min) | Shoulder rotator–cuff balance | Swimming: ↑ Muscular imbalances in the shoulder rotator-cuffs |
Control (Nonathletes) | ♂ n = 33 14.64 ± 0.49 | ------- | ||||
D’Ascenzi et al., 2016 [43] (Italy) | Swimming (Training) | ♂ n = 57 10.8 ± 0.2 | 5 | five to six sessions (75–90 min) | Biatrial remodelling (atrial measurements and myocardial function) | Swimming: Promotes heart growth and morphological adaptations |
Control (Nonathletes) | ♂ n = 37 10.2 ± 0.2 | ------- | ||||
Gomez-Bruton et al., 2017 [44] (Spain) | Swimming (Training) | ♂♀ n = 23 15.0 ± 2.2 | 8 | 6 h (NA) | Aereal BMD Bone strength Bone structure | Swimming: → Radius bone strength ↑ Low in tibia bone strength ↑ Low in trcohanter aereal BMD Swim + Weightlifting: ↑ Bone strength |
Swim + Weightlifting (Training) | ♂♀ n = 11 15.1 ± 2.8 | 6 h (NA) | ||||
Control (Nonathletes) | ♂♀ n = 28 14.1 ± 2.3 | ------- | ||||
Vlachopoulos et al., 2017 [45] (United Kingdom) | Swimming (Training) | ♂ n = 37 13.5 ± 1.0 | 12 | 9.4 ± 5.1 sessions (NA) | Bone acquisition | Soccer benefits compared with other sports: ↑ Femoral neck and lumbar spine bone acquisition |
Soccer (Training) | ♂ n = 37 12.9 ± 0.9 | 10.0 ± 2.3 sessions (NA) | ||||
Cyclism (Training) | ♂ n = 28 13.2 ± 1.0 | 5.2 ± 2.1 sessions (NA) | ||||
Control (Nonathletes) | ♂ n = 14 12.3 ± 0.5 | ------- | ||||
Bovard et al., 2018 [46] (Canada) | Swimming (Training) | ♀ n = 11 12.4 ± 0.8 | 7.6 | five to seven sessions (NA) | Lung growth | Swimming: → Lung growth (ihnerent characteristic) |
Control (Nonathletes) | ♀ n = 10 13.2 ± 1.3 | ------- | ||||
Ubago-Guisado et al., 2018 [47] (United Kingdom) | Swimming (Training) | ♂ n = 39 13.5 ± 1.0 | 12 | 9.5 ± 5.0 sessions (NA) | Aereal BMD Hip geometry Trabecular bone score | Swimming: → Aereal BMD → Hip geometry → Trabecular bone score |
Soccer (Training) | ♂ n = 37 12.9 ± 0.9 | 10.0 ± 2.3 sessions (NA) | ||||
Cyclism (Training) | ♂ n = 28 13.3 ± 1.1 | 5.2 ± 2.1 sessions (NA) | ||||
Vlachopoulos et al., 2018 [48] (United Kingdom) | Swimming (Training) | ♂ n = 37 13.5 ± 1.0 | 12 | 9.4 ± 5.1 sessions (NA) | Bone development | Soccer higher compared with other sports: ↑ BMC and bone stiffness |
Soccer (Training) | ♂ n = 37 12.9 ± 0.9 | 10.0 ± 2.3 sessions (NA) | ||||
Cyclism (Training) | ♂ n = 28 13.2 ± 1.0 | 5.2 ± 2.1 sessions (NA) | ||||
Control (Nonathletes) | ♂ n = 14 12.3 ± 0.5 | ------- | ||||
Collins et al., 2019 [49] (United States of America) | Swimming (Training) | ♂♀ n = 128 12.8 ± 2.9 | 12 | 5.7 h (NA) | Bone accrual | Swimming: → Total body bone mass and accrual → Hip bone mass and accrual |
Control (Nonathletes) | ♂♀ n = 106 13.8 ± 3.2 | ------- | ||||
Agostinete et al., 2020 [50] (Brazil) | Swimming (Training) | ♂♀ n = 18 12.7 ± 1.2 | 18 | 1001 ± 196 min (NA) | Bone accrual | Impact sports higher compared with other sports: ↑ Aereal BMD ↑ Bone mineral apparent density |
Impact (Training) | ♂♀ n = 33 12.7 ± 1.3 | 664 ± 369 min (NA) | ||||
Control (Nonathletes) | ♂♀ n = 20 12.6 ± 2.6 | ------- | ||||
Zhao et al., 2020 [51] (China) | Swimming (Training) | ♂ n= 10 11–13 | 24 | six sessions (2–3 h) | Physiological performance Body dimensions Motor abilities | Both groups develop similar: ↑ Vital capacity ↑ Hemoglobin concentration |
Racket-sports (Training) | ♂ n= 11 11–13 | 20.8 h (2–3 h) | ||||
Bielec et al., 2021 [52] (Poland) | Swimming (Training) | ♂♀ n = 46 11.7 | 3 | 8.2 ± 1.4 sessions (NA) | Body composition | Swimming: ↓ Adipose tissue growth |
Other sports (Training) | ♂♀ n = 42 11.9 | 3.5 ± 0.9 sessions (NA) | ||||
Costa et al., 2022 [53] (Portugal) | Swimming (Training) | ♂ n = 20 12.7 ± 0.4 | 12 | NA (NA) | Body composition Bone tissue | Swimming: ↑ Lean soft tissue → Fat mass increments ↑ Aereal BMD (less than soccer) |
Soccer (Training) | ♂ n= 20 12.4 ± 0.3 | NA (NA) |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Ferreira, F.A.; Santos, C.C.; Palmeira, A.L.; Fernandes, R.J.; Costa, M.J. Effects of Swimming Exercise on Early Adolescents’ Physical Conditioning and Physical Health: A Systematic Review. J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9, 158. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9030158
Ferreira FA, Santos CC, Palmeira AL, Fernandes RJ, Costa MJ. Effects of Swimming Exercise on Early Adolescents’ Physical Conditioning and Physical Health: A Systematic Review. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology. 2024; 9(3):158. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9030158
Chicago/Turabian StyleFerreira, Francisco A., Catarina C. Santos, António L. Palmeira, Ricardo J. Fernandes, and Mário J. Costa. 2024. "Effects of Swimming Exercise on Early Adolescents’ Physical Conditioning and Physical Health: A Systematic Review" Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology 9, no. 3: 158. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9030158