Integrating Objective and Subjective Thermal Comfort Assessments in Urban Park Design: A Case Study of Monteria, Colombia

Abstract

Urban parks play a key role in mitigating heat stress and improving outdoor thermal comfort, especially in tropical and subtropical cities. This study evaluates thermal comfort in Nuevo Bosque Park (Montería, Colombia) through a multiperspective approach that combines perception surveys (n = 99), in situ microclimatic measurements, and spatial mapping. Surface temperatures ranged from 32.0 °C in the morning to 51.7 °C at midday in sun-exposed areas, while vegetated zones remained up to 10 °C cooler. Heat Index (HI) and Temperature–Humidity Index (THI) values confirmed severe thermal stress, with HI reaching 32 °C and THI peaking at 55.0 °C in some zones. Subjective responses showed that 69.69% of users reported thermal discomfort, especially in areas with impermeable surfaces and little shade. In contrast, 90.91% of respondents stated that tree cover improved their thermal experience. The results indicate a strong correlation between vegetation density, surface type, and users’ perceived comfort. Additionally, urban furniture location and natural ventilation emerged as key factors influencing thermal sensation. The integration of objective and subjective data has enabled the identification of microclimatic risk zones and informed evidence-based recommendations for climate-adaptive park design. This study offers practical insights for sustainable urban planning in tropical climates, demonstrating the importance of thermal comfort assessments that consider both human perception and environmental conditions to enhance the resilience and usability of public spaces.

1. Introduction

Climate change has increased average annual temperatures and the frequency of extreme heat events globally [1,2,3]. These extreme conditions pose a growing challenge, particularly in tropical regions of Latin America, Southeast Asia, and parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. In cities, thermal comfort is an essential factor influencing quality of life, especially in urban public spaces [4,5]. This concept, defined by [6,7] as a mental state expressing satisfaction with the thermal environment, is closely related to health and social well-being [8].

Vegetation and shade are key elements for the perception of thermal comfort in urban spaces [8]. Studies have shown that urban parks act as thermal oases, regulating local temperature and mitigating the effects of extreme heat [9]. Plant species such as native trees with dense foliage significantly contribute to cooling through mechanisms such as evaporation and shade provision [10,11]. However, the design and maintenance of these spaces must be carefully planned to maximize their benefits, especially in vulnerable areas [12].

Socioeconomic inequality exacerbates problems associated with extreme heat in urban areas. Housing in low-income communities, for example, often lacks proper designs to withstand high temperatures, putting residents’ health at risk [13]. In these contexts, urban parks serve as critical spaces for thermal relief and promote equity in public health [14]. Moreover, equitable access to these spaces is a fundamental component for advancing Sustainable Development Goal 11, Target 11.7, which calls for universal access to safe, inclusive, and accessible green and public spaces; and Sustainable Development Goal 13, Target 13.1, which aims to strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries [15].

The design of urban parks should also consider bioclimatic aspects to ensure their functionality as thermal regulators. Factors such as the distribution of green areas, park orientation, and the incorporation of elements like water bodies or shaded structures are key to optimizing thermal comfort [16]. Poor planning, on the other hand, can worsen issues such as thermal stress and public health deterioration.

Assessing thermal comfort in public spaces requires methodologies that combine objective and subjective measurements. While thermal indices such as PMV (Predicted Mean Vote), PET (Physiological Equivalent Temperature), and UTCI (Universal Thermal Climate Index) provide quantitative estimates based on climatic variables like temperature, humidity, and solar radiation, their application in urban studies has shown limitations as they do not fully capture users’ thermal experience. This study addresses this methodological gap by integrating perception surveys, in-field environmental measurements, and detailed spatial analysis, providing a more holistic view of thermal comfort in urban parks. For example, PMV estimates the expected average thermal sensation on a scale ranging from “extreme cold” to “extreme heat”, based on human body energy balances [17]. PET, on the other hand, translates these variables into an equivalent temperature that users would perceive in an open environment. The more recent UTCI is recognized for its ability to assess thermal conditions in diverse contexts, including extreme climates [18].

These tools provide a scientific basis for identifying the thermal characteristics of urban spaces, which is key in designing parks adapted to climatic needs. However, indices alone do not fully capture human experience, as factors such as behavior, cultural adaptation, and individual expectations also influence the perception of comfort [19]. This is where perception surveys play a fundamental role [20]. They allow for the direct collection of information from users about their experience in public spaces, including their frequency of use, preferred areas, and thermal sensation at different times of the day.

The combination of technical and subjective data offers a comprehensive assessment of thermal comfort. For example, Ref. [21] demonstrates that thermal indices are effective in identifying critical points in urban design, while perception surveys help prioritize interventions based on user needs. These combined approaches enable adjustments to design strategies and improve the functionality of public spaces to mitigate climate change effects and promote their continuous use.

This research proposes that a well-designed urban park, characterized by an efficient distribution of vegetation and shade, enhances thermal comfort and reduces surface temperatures. It is hypothesized that areas with higher vegetation density will have significantly lower temperatures and a better perception of comfort compared to areas without vegetation cover or with impermeable surfaces. Likewise, it is expected that the appropriate arrangement of urban furniture, such as benches and shaded areas, along with conditions that favor natural ventilation and prevent excessive moisture accumulation, will contribute to improving users’ perceived thermal sensation. The main objective is to develop a methodology to evaluate the design of urban parks based on thermal comfort, aiming to support climate adaptation strategies and enhance user well-being. For this case study, the Nuevo Bosque Park in Monteria, Colombia, was selected, located in a medium–low socioeconomic community, offering an opportunity to analyze the impact of design and vegetation on thermal comfort and local quality of life.

This study adopts a multiperspective approach to evaluate thermal comfort in Nuevo Bosque Park, integrating perception surveys, environmental measurements, and detailed spatial mapping. This methodological combination allows for a comprehensive analysis of how the park’s microclimatic conditions affect users’ thermal experience, and provides relevant information for data-driven urban planning.

Several studies have demonstrated the importance of this integrated approach [22,23,24]. This combination of methodologies offers several advantages. For instance, data triangulation allows for comparing field measurements with users’ subjective experiences, which increases the robustness and validity of the findings [25]. Moreover, detailed spatial analysis based on field-collected data facilitates the identification of urban microclimates and the determination of critical areas, thus enabling the design of mitigation strategies tailored to each specific context [26,27].The integration of these approaches not only allows for comparisons between different studies and temporal scales, but is also particularly relevant in tropical and subtropical climates, where thermal variations can be especially intense [28]. Therefore, this multifaceted approach contributes to a comprehensive understanding of thermal comfort and supports the development of more precise recommendations for sustainable urban planning.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study area corresponds to Nuevo Bosque Park, located in Commune 9 of Monteria, Córdoba, in the southwestern part of the city (Figure 1). According to the National Administrative Department of Statistics [29], this commune has approximately 35,000 inhabitants, with a high population density and significant socioeconomic heterogeneity, predominantly comprising socioeconomic strata 1, 2, and 3. Geographically, it features a flat topography and a tropical savanna climate (Köppen–Geiger classification: Aw). With an average annual temperature of 27.6 °C and a high relative humidity of around 80% [30], Monteria has recorded significant maximum temperatures in recent years, reaching 38.1 °C in January 2024 and Heat Index values exceeding 45 °C in April of the same year [31].

Nuevo Bosque Park serves as a space for social interaction and community engagement. Under Colombian regulations [32], it is classified as a zonal-scale area that caters to both the residents of Commune 9 and neighboring sectors [33]. This park includes a diverse range of facilities and spaces that promote both active and passive recreation. Its main features include:

• Children’s and sports facilities—Areas dedicated to sports such as micro-football, volleyball, and basketball;
• Bio-healthy zones—Equipped with outdoor gym modules for physical exercise;
• Urban furniture—Strategically placed benches for passive activities such as socializing or enjoying the landscape;
• Children’s recreation—Playgrounds and structures designed for children, fostering a family-friendly environment.

Additionally, the park is the only facility of its kind within several kilometers, making it a key recreational resource for the local population and visitors from other areas. Recent studies [34,35,36] have documented that this space attracts users from beyond Commune 9, due to its uniqueness and diverse recreational services.

The characteristics of the park’s immediate surroundings make the study of thermal comfort particularly relevant. The distribution of green areas, the orientation of facilities, and the materials used in construction directly impact users’ thermal experience. Understanding how these variables interact with local climatic conditions is essential for proposing sustainable solutions that enhance quality of life and promote the continuous use of public spaces.

2.2. Methodology

The adopted methodology integrates qualitative and quantitative approaches to evaluate thermal comfort in Nuevo Bosque Park. These phases were designed to complementarily address the different aspects of thermal comfort, from the collection of objective data to the incorporation of subjective perceptions, allowing for a comprehensive assessment of the phenomenon. In particular, emphasis is placed on the combination of field measurements, thermal analyses, and geospatial tools to identify spatial patterns and generate adaptive recommendations. The study was structured into three main phases.

2.2.1. Detailed Mapping of the Public Space Unit Under Study

The detailed mapping of the park located in the El Bosque neighborhood of Commune 9 in the city of Monteria aimed to analyze how the physical and vegetative characteristics of these spaces influence thermal comfort conditions. This process included the collection of georeferenced and detailed information on urban furniture, predominant surface typologies, and vegetation cover, allowing for an evaluation of the impact of these factors on local temperatures [37].

The analysis focused on identifying “critical zones”, areas where thermal conditions are less favorable. These zones may arise due to various factors such as lack of shade, high solar exposure, and surfaces with high thermal absorption capacity, which intensify the urban heat island effect.

Mapping of Park Furniture

This stage involved the georeferencing and characterization of the park’s furniture, with a particular focus on available seating. Aspects such as the type of construction material, spatial distribution, and its relationship with natural and artificial elements in the surroundings, such as trees, shade structures, and reflective surfaces, were recorded.

The strategic placement of benches and seats plays a fundamental role in users’ thermal experience. Factors such as exposure to solar radiation, proximity to wooded areas, and natural ventilation influence the perceived level of thermal comfort. Proper design can maximize comfort conditions by reducing heat exposure during peak temperature hours and promoting cooler spaces through the integration of furniture in shaded areas or locations with air circulation [38,39].

Mapping of Predominant Surface Typologies

This stage involved the identification, classification, and georeferencing of the different surface typologies present in the park, distinguishing them based on their physical characteristics and their permeability and vegetation cover capacity. For this purpose, two levels of categorization were established.

Types of Surfaces Present

Four general categories were defined according to their functionality and environmental characteristics, as follows:

• Surface with tree cover—Areas with tree canopy providing shade and regulating local temperature;
• Impermeable surface—Areas covered with materials that do not allow water infiltration, such as concrete or asphalt;
• Permeable surface—Soils that allow water infiltration but do not necessarily have vegetation cover;
• Vegetated surface—Areas where vegetation is the predominant element, contributing to the reduction in the urban heat island effect and improving thermal comfort [40].

Surface Subtypes

Specific characteristics within each surface type were detailed, allowing for a more precise analysis of their distribution and impact on the environment, as follows:

• Grass-covered soil without tree cover—Areas with herbaceous coverage but lacking tree shade;
• Concrete—Paved surfaces with high thermal reflectance and low infiltration capacity;
• Grass-covered soil—Spaces with herbaceous cover that can contribute to thermal regulation;
• Permeable soil without vegetation—Unpaved areas that allow infiltration but lack vegetation cover;
• Green area—Spaces designed for vegetation conservation and environmental balance.

This mapping is essential for assessing surface distribution in relation to the creation of microclimates within the park. The proportion of permeable and impermeable surfaces influences thermal regulation capacity and stormwater management, while the presence of tree cover and vegetation enhances visitors’ thermal comfort. These data will be used to analyze the relationship between the park’s infrastructure and users’ thermal perceptions [41].

Characterization of Vegetation Cover

The characterization of the tree vegetation present in the park included species identification, and the measurement of height, density, and the projected shade area of the trees. The techniques used were based on methodologies validated by previous studies [42] and were adapted to urban conditions.

The height of each tree was determined using the simple triangulation method. The procedure followed these steps:

I.

A fixed distance of 10 m was marked from the base of the tree;

II.

A straight object (such as a pencil or a rod) was held at arm’s length, aligning the lower end of the object with the tree base and the upper end with the treetop;

III.

The proportion between the object’s length and its distance from the eye was used to calculate the total tree height using the formula

$${\mathrm{H}}_{\mathrm{T}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{e}}=\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{O}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{j}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{t} \mathrm{h}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{t}}{\mathrm{D}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{e} \mathrm{t}\mathrm{o} \mathrm{e}\mathrm{y}\mathrm{e}}}\right)\times \mathrm{D}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{e} \mathrm{t}\mathrm{o} \mathrm{t}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{e} \mathrm{t}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{e} \mathrm{b}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}.$$

This method allowed for the practical estimation of approximate tree heights.

Tree density was estimated by considering the park’s total area as the unit of analysis. The procedure followed these steps:

I.

The perimeter of the park was measured using a measuring tape, and its total area (AAA) was calculated using simple geometric techniques (triangles, rectangles, or approximations based on the park’s shape);

II.

A thorough count of all trees present within the park was conducted;

III.

Tree density was expressed in terms of trees per square meter using the following formula:

$${\mathrm{D}}_{\mathrm{T}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{e}}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{T}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{l} \mathrm{n}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r} \mathrm{o}\mathrm{f} \mathrm{t}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{s} \mathrm{i}\mathrm{n} \mathrm{t}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{e} \mathrm{p}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{t}}{\mathrm{P}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{t} \mathrm{a}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{a}}}\times \mathrm{10,000}.$$

This formula allows for the analysis of tree distribution in relation to the total available space, providing a more accurate representation for parks where environmental conditions are heterogeneous.

The projected shade area of each tree was measured under clear-sky conditions at midday, when shadows are most defined, following these steps:

I.

The perimeter of the shadow was marked using stakes and a rope;

II.

Two perpendicular diameters (maximum and minimum shadow length) were measured using a measuring tape;

III.

The projected shade area was calculated by assuming an elliptical shape of the shadow, using the formula

$${\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{S}}=\mathsf{\pi }\times {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{D}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{x}}{2}}\times {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{D}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}}{2}},$$

where A_S is the projected shade area, Dmax is the maximum shadow length, and Dmin is the minimum shadow length.

The tree density was estimated as the percentage of foliage cover in the canopy. The procedure followed these steps:

I.

The average canopy diameter was measured in two perpendicular directions;

II.

The total canopy area was calculated using the formula for the area of a circle,

$${\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{C}}=\mathsf{\pi }\times {\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{D}}{2}}\right)}^2,$$

where A_C is the total canopy area, and D is the average canopy diameter;

III.

The degree of foliage cover was observed in terms of occupied space and classified as follows:

• Very dense (80–100% full);
• Dense (60–80% full);
• Moderate (40–60% full).

This analysis was complemented with photographs to visually validate the density.

Tree height, tree density, projected shade area, tree canopy density, and species are key indicators of a tree’s ability to moderate thermal conditions in an environment. Tall trees with dense canopies provide greater shade and reduce direct solar radiation, while tree density reflects the vegetation’s capacity to form cool corridors. Additionally, the selected tree species significantly influence thermal comfort, as different types of foliage and vegetative structures offer varying levels of evapotranspiration and coverage. These combined characteristics play a crucial role in thermal comfort, especially in urban areas, by mitigating the urban heat island effect and promoting more livable environments [43].

2.2.2. Estimation of Thermal Comfort

Estimation Based on Subjective Perception Assessment

The surveys used in this study were based on the model proposed by [44], but adaptations were made following the methodology of [45] to adjust them to the local context and the specific characteristics of urban parks in the tropics (Appendix A 

Table A1. Classification scale of the PET Index.

Thermal Sensation	Thermal Perception	PET	Representation
Very cold	Extreme cold stress	<4
Cold	Strong cold stress	4–8
Cool	Moderate cold stress	8–13
Slightly cool	Slight cold stress	13–18
Comfortable	No thermal stress	18–23
Slightly warm	Slight heat stress	23–29
Warm	Moderate heat stress	29–35
Hot	Strong heat stress	35–41
Very hot	Extreme heat stress	>41

,

Table A2. Classification scale of the Thermal Discomfort Index (THI-DI).

Classification	DI
Uncomfortable	DI ≤ 14.9
Comfortable	15.0 ≤ DI ≤ 19.9
Partially comfortable	20.0 ≤ DI ≤ 30.0
Uncomfortable	DI ≥ 30.1

and

Table A3. Classification scale of the IDEAM Comfort Index.

Experienced Sensation	IC
Very Hot	0–3
Hot	3.1–5
Warm	5.1–7
Comfortable	7.1–11
Slightly cool	11.1–13
Cold	13.1–15
Very cold	>15

). These modifications aimed to more accurately capture users’ thermal perceptions in response to typical environmental conditions of hot and humid climates.

The adaptation included an expansion of questions related to the influence of the immediate physical environment, incorporating aspects such as perceived shade, the type of surface (vegetated or impermeable), and the presence of surrounding vegetation. Specific questions were also included to assess the perception of wind’s effects and its absence, as this factor may be less noticeable in environments with high tree density.

Additionally, ref. [45] proposed a more detailed evaluation scale for thermal sensations, classifying them into intervals that allow better correlation with climatic indices (HI and THI). The scale was adjusted to include terms such as “stifling” or “cool”, with specific temperature and humidity ranges relative to tropical conditions (

Table 1. Classification of thermal sensation according to perceived temperature and relative humidity (NOAA, 1979).

Thermal Sensation Category	Description	Approximate Perceived Temperature Range (°C)	Relative Humidity (%)
Extremely Cold	Severe cold sensation, intolerable without protective clothing.	<15	Medium to high (>60%)
Very Cold	Uncomfortable sensation but tolerable for short periods; reduction in physical activity.	15–19	Medium to high (>60%)
Cool	Slightly cold but pleasant; may require light clothing for sensitive individuals.	20–22	Medium (>50%)
Neutral	Optimal perceived temperature, with no obvious sensations of cold or heat.	23–25	Medium (>50–70%)
Slightly Warm	Comfortable sensation with slight signs of heat; ideal for recreational activities.	26–28	High (>70%)
Warm	Noticeable heat; may be uncomfortable during intense physical activity.	29–30	High (>70%)
Very Warm	Moderate to intense heat sensation; moderate sweating, discomfort.	31–33	Very high (>75%)
Hot/Sultry	Intense heat that limits prolonged stay in the area; significant discomfort.	34–35	Very high (>75%)
Extremely Hot	Dangerous condition for health, especially for vulnerable individuals.	>35	Very high (<80%)

).

Another significant change was the analysis of the physical activity reported by users. A more precise classification of activities performed in the parks was included, distinguishing between sedentary, moderate, or vigorous activities, to identify how these influence the perception of thermal comfort.

Finally, questions regarding personal preferences were expanded to gather more detailed information on heat tolerance, typical clothing conditions in the tropical context, and the perceived relief provided by the park’s green areas. These adaptations ensure that the data obtained not only reflect the objective conditions of the environment but also users’ subjective perceptions, enriching the analysis and interpretation of results. These data were correlated with objective temperature and relative humidity measurements, providing a comprehensive view of thermal comfort in the study area.

In this study, the measurement of wind speed was intentionally excluded due to several factors. First, the geographical location of the park and its urban characteristics create an airflow dynamic that, although it may influence thermal perception under specific conditions, is not considered a dominant factor in the area’s microclimate. Additionally, the park’s structure, with dense vegetation cover and shaded areas, significantly limits the direct impact of wind on users. This creates local microclimates where thermal sensation is more influenced by ambient temperature, relative humidity, and vegetation cover than by air movement. Lastly, previous studies in similar environments [45] have shown that in areas with dense vegetation and predominant shade, the influence of wind on thermal perception is marginal compared to other factors. Therefore, the measurement of more relevant variables for the park’s specific context was prioritized, ensuring consistent and representative results of the conditions experienced by users.

The surveys were conducted during October and November, which represent important climatic transitions in Monteria. October includes moderate rainfall that affects relative humidity, while November offers drier and more stable conditions, allowing for a comprehensive evaluation of thermal conditions [21]. According to data from the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies [46], these months represent a period of climatic transition in Montería, characterized by relatively cooler conditions and variability in humidity levels. In particular, October is identified as one of the “coolest” months of the year, marking the shift from the rainy season to the dry season. This transition allows for the assessment of thermal comfort under less extreme and more representative conditions of daily thermal variability.

Although the temporal sample is limited to two months, the microclimatic measurements and thermal perception surveys conducted at different times of the day and under varying meteorological conditions have made it possible to draw general conclusions about the thermal patterns in the studied park. However, in order to generalize the results to other times of the year or to different urban contexts, complementary studies covering other seasons or multiple locations would be necessary.

The thermal comfort perception survey aims to understand how users of the public space under study perceive and experience the thermal conditions of the environment while engaging in recreational activities. This type of survey is essential for studying thermal comfort because it allows for the collection of subjective data directly from users, which complements objective indicators measured in the environment (such as temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, and thermal radiation). These surveys are fundamental tools for understanding how thermal environments affect people, informing design, operation, and adaptation decisions for spaces, especially within the framework of sustainability and energy efficiency.

The application of the thermal comfort perception survey in Parque Nuevo Bosque was carried out over two weeks, taking into account the actual conditions of space usage and the availability of visitors to participate. Unlike studies based on strict statistical sampling, the nature of this research required a flexible approach adapted to the dynamics of the urban environment and the spontaneous interaction of users with the space. For this reason, a non-probabilistic convenience sampling method was chosen, in which the number of surveys collected depended on the flow of visitors during the survey days and their voluntary willingness to participate.

This type of sampling has been widely used in studies of environmental and urban perception, especially when aiming to capture real-time subjective experiences within specific scenarios [47,48].

Additionally, the choice of this method responds to three key considerations, as follows: The need to conduct the survey within a defined time frame to ensure comparability between environmental conditions and recorded responses; The criterion that respondents be actual users of Parque Nuevo Bosque at the time of the study, ensuring the relevance of the responses; Voluntariness as a fundamental ethical principle in social and environmental research [49]. The literature indicates that this type of sampling is especially useful in exploratory and perception studies, where accessibility to participants and their availability to respond in context contribute a valuable qualitative and contextual dimension to the data obtained [50,51].

Informed consent was obtained from all participants in the study. Participants were informed about the research objectives, the anonymous nature of their responses, and their right to withdraw at any time. No personally identifiable information was collected. The study ensured the protection of participants’ rights and well-being. All ethical procedures were conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and Colombia’s Law 1581 of 2012. The study involved anonymous and non-sensitive self-reported data from adult participants, ensuring confidentiality. The questions focused exclusively on general perceptions and experiences, without requesting private or sensitive information. Participation was voluntary, with the option to withdraw at any time. The research did not involve vulnerable populations.

Evaluation Based on Climate Variable Analysis and Index Calculation

The estimation of thermal comfort was based on a detailed analysis of physical variables through the implementation of widely accepted thermal indices, such as the Heat Index (HI) and the Temperature–Humidity Index (THI). These indices were calculated from data collected in the field using specialized instruments, ensuring precision in the measurements conducted at strategic points within Nuevo Bosque Park and its surroundings.

The measurements carried out in the park aimed to evaluate microclimatic conditions at different times of the day—morning (8:00 a.m.), midday (12:00 p.m.), and afternoon/evening (5:00 p.m.). An infrared thermometer was used to record surface temperatures every five square meters, and a digital hygrometer was employed to measure relative humidity and ambient temperature every seven square meters, following protocols similar to those used in studies such as [45]. This methodological design enabled the capture of significant variations in thermal and humidity conditions at different points in the park, considering scenarios such as vegetated areas, paved zones, shaded spaces provided by trees, and sectors exposed directly to sunlight.

The systematic quadrant-based measurement approach, with a strategically chosen density of sampling points, provided a high level of spatial detail. This allowed for the identification of microclimatic patterns associated with the distribution and characteristics of surfaces and vegetation within the park, essential aspects for understanding the influence of the built and natural environment on thermal comfort. By conducting measurements at three key times of the day, it was possible to assess how different surfaces (vegetated and artificial) and shade coverage respond to variations in solar radiation and ambient temperatures.

This methodology also enables the creation of a thermal map of the park, highlighting critical points of thermal discomfort as well as areas that provide greater comfort, which is essential for designing climate adaptation strategies in urban areas. Moreover, this approach allows for the analysis of the effectiveness of vegetation cover in regulating temperature and humidity, particularly in hot and humid climates, where thermal comfort poses a challenge for users of public spaces.

The following section details the climatic variables measured using specialized instruments:

• Air temperature (Ta)—It is the primary determinant of thermal comfort, as it directly affects heat transfer between the human body and the environment. Extreme temperature values increase the likelihood of thermal stress. It was measured using a portable hygrometer calibrated according to international standards [52]. The unit of measurement was degrees Celsius (°C);
• Relative humidity (RH)—Represents the amount of water vapor in the air relative to the maximum amount the air can hold at a given temperature. A high RH decreases the body’s ability to dissipate heat through sweat evaporation, increasing the sensation of heat [35]. RH data were measured as percentages (%) using digital hygrometers with an accuracy of ±5% RH, suitable for general environmental monitoring;
• Thermal radiation (TR)—Considers both direct solar radiation and the radiation emitted by hot surfaces. It is crucial to evaluate the impact of prolonged sun exposure or areas with materials that have a high thermal absorption capacity. Thermal radiation was measured using infrared thermometers, obtaining values in °C.

These variables were integrated into the calculation of two key thermal indices—the Heat Index (HI) and the Temperature–Humidity Index (THI), both of which are fundamental for classifying thermal conditions in the park. These indices were used due to their ease of calculation, their widespread application in hot and humid climates [53], and their ability to provide rapid estimates of thermal stress based on basic meteorological variables such as air temperature and relative humidity. These indices are particularly suitable for tropical urban environments like Montería (Colombia), where environmental conditions favor heat accumulation and the perception of thermal discomfort.

Although the Heat Index (HI) was initially developed within the climatic context of the United States, its formulation has been adopted and standardized by international organizations such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which has facilitated its application in various geographic settings. Its structure allows it to cover a wide range of temperatures (from 27 °C to over 43 °C) and relative humidity levels (from 40% to 100%), making it a versatile index adaptable to tropical conditions. In the case of Montería (Colombia), where high levels of temperature and humidity often occur simultaneously, the HI is especially useful for assessing perceived thermal discomfort and estimating potential health risks associated with prolonged heat exposure.

Among the advantages of using these indices are their methodological simplicity, which enables their calculation using easily obtainable data from basic instruments; their straightforward interpretation, as the HI includes warning categories that help identify risk levels, and the THI classifies degrees of thermal discomfort; and finally, their close alignment with subjective perception, as the values obtained coincided with users’ responses in the urban space.

Overall, the combined use of THI and HI effectively characterizes thermal discomfort conditions in the analyzed urban park, contributing to the identification of critical areas and the design of mitigation strategies tailored to the tropical climate context.

• Heat Index (HI) or Thermal Sensation Index

This index consists of an equation that combines air temperature and relative humidity to estimate how heat is perceived under high humidity conditions. It was developed based on the original work of Robert G. Steadman in 1979. In his article “The Assessment of Sultriness: Part I. A Temperature-Humidity Index Based on Human Physiology and Clothing Science” (Journal of Applied Meteorology), he provided the theoretical and physiological foundations for relating air temperature and relative humidity to human heat perception.

However, the modern HI equation is a polynomial approximation based on Steadman’s work and adapted by the National Weather Service (NWS) to facilitate its calculation and practical application. The formula is as follows:

$$\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}:{\mathrm{C}}_1+{\mathrm{C}}_2\mathrm{T}+{\mathrm{C}}_3\mathrm{R}\mathrm{H}+{\mathrm{C}}_4\mathrm{T}\mathrm{R}\mathrm{H}+{\mathrm{C}}_5{\mathrm{T}}^2+{\mathrm{C}}_6\mathrm{R}{\mathrm{H}}^2+{\mathrm{C}}_7{\mathrm{T}}^2\mathrm{R}\mathrm{H}+{\mathrm{C}}_8\mathrm{T}\mathrm{R}{\mathrm{H}}^2+{\mathrm{C}}_9{\mathrm{T}}^2{\mathrm{R}\mathrm{H}}^2$$

where T is air temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F), and RH is relative humidity in percentage (%).

The constants and terms in the Heat Index equation are as follows:

-

${\mathrm{C}}_1$ is −42.379 → This initial value adjusts the index scale so that the results are consistent with human thermal perception in °F.

-

${\mathrm{C}}_2$ is 2.04901523 → This represents the direct contribution of air temperature (in °F) to the thermal sensation.

-

${\mathrm{C}}_3$ is 10.14333127 → This indicates how relative humidity (%RH) affects heat perception; high humidity generally intensifies this perception.

-

${\mathrm{C}}_4$ is −0.22475541 → Models the interaction between temperature and relative humidity. This term captures how, when combined, these two factors amplify or moderate the thermal sensation.

-

${\mathrm{C}}_5$ is −6.83783 → Models the nonlinear effect of extreme temperatures, where the perceived heat increases disproportionately.

-

${\mathrm{C}}_6$ is −5.481717 → This describes how very high relative humidity significantly intensifies heat perception.

-

${\mathrm{C}}_7$ is 1.22874 × 10⁻³ → This adjusts the quadratic interaction of temperature with relative humidity. This is relevant under extreme conditions.

-

${\mathrm{C}}_8$ is 8.5282 → This reflects how extremely high relative humidity amplifies the effect of temperature on thermal sensation.

-

${\mathrm{C}}_9$ is −1.99 × 10⁻⁶ → This is the highest-order term, and captures the most complex interactions between temperature and humidity under extreme conditions.

The NOAA defines specific adjustments for certain conditions.

Low humidity (<13%) and temperature between 80 °F and 112 °F:

$$\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}:\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}-{\mathrm{C}}_{10}(13-\mathrm{R}\mathrm{H})\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{{\mathrm{C}}_{11}-\mathrm{T}}{{\mathrm{C}}_{11}}}.}$$

Low humidity improves sweat evaporation, reducing thermal sensation, especially at high temperatures.

Here, ${\mathrm{C}}_{10}:{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}$ is the factor that reduces thermal sensation due to improved sweat evaporation at low humidity.

The term (13 – RH) measures how much lower the humidity is compared to the 13% threshold.

The factor $({\mathrm{C}}_{11}-\mathrm{T}$) ensures that the effect of low humidity decreases as the temperature moves away from 95 °F, the point at which thermal sensation is most sensitive.

For high humidity (>85%) and moderate temperatures (80 °F to 87 °F),

$$\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}:\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}+{\displaystyle \frac{(\mathrm{R}\mathrm{H}-{\mathrm{C}}_{14})}{{\mathrm{C}}_{15}}}\times {\displaystyle \frac{\left({\mathrm{C}}_{16}-\mathrm{T}\right)}{{\mathrm{C}}_{17}}}.$$

High humidity increases thermal sensation by making sweat evaporation more difficult.

The term (RH − C₁₄), where C₁₄:85, measures how much higher the humidity is compared to the 85% threshold.

The factor (C₁₆ − T), where C₁₆:87 reflects that the effect of high humidity decreases as the temperature moves away from the critical range of 87 °F.

These formulas were empirically adjusted by the National Weather Service (NWS) using physiological and climatic data collected in previous studies. The constants and factors (4, 17, 10, 54, 17, 10, 54, 17, 10, 5, etc.) were derived by optimizing the equation to accurately reproduce real observations of thermal perception.

The Heat Index (HI) is interpreted using reference tables developed by the United States National Weather Service (NOAA). The obtained values are typically classified into ranges that indicate the level of thermal stress and potential health risks (

Table 2. Interpretation of the Heat Index (HI).

HI (°F)	HI (°C)	Risk Category	Health Impact
<80	<26.6	No risk	Normal conditions: the body easily regulates heat.
80–90	26.6–32.2	Caution	Risk of heat fatigue if exposure is prolonged or if there is intense activity.
91–103	32.7–39.4	Extreme caution	Risk of heat cramps and exhaustion; heat stroke is possible with prolonged exposure.
104–124	40.0–51.1	Dangerous	Heat stroke and heat exhaustion are likely.
125–137	51.6–68.3	Very dangerous	Highly probable heat stroke, even with brief exposure.
>137	>58.3	Extremely dangerous	Fatal conditions, with a high probability of heat stroke.

).

• Temperature–Humidity Index (THI)

The Temperature–Humidity Index (THI) was initially developed to assess the impact of environmental conditions on well-being and performance, particularly in livestock production. However, it has been adapted for use in human research and thermal comfort studies.

The modern version of the Temperature–Humidity Index (THI) is based on the concept of “effective heat”, which considers the combined influence of ambient temperature and relative humidity on thermal perception. Originally developed by [54] to evaluate thermal stress in humans, the index has been modified in various studies to adapt to different climatic contexts.

One of the most widely used formulas in recent studies is the one proposed by [55], initially applied to assess thermal stress in animals but based on principles that have also been used in human thermal comfort studies. This formula is expressed as

$$\mathrm{T}\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}=\mathrm{T}\mathrm{a}-\left(\mathrm{A}-\mathrm{B}\times \mathrm{H}\mathrm{R}\right)\times (\mathrm{T}\mathrm{a}-\mathrm{C})$$

where Ta = air temperature in degrees Celsius (°C); RH = relative humidity in percentage (%); T = temperature in degrees Celsius °C (this is the primary factor, as air temperature directly influences thermal sensation). As temperature increases, the human body perceives more heat.

RH (relative humidity in percentage %) describes the amount of water vapor present in the air compared to the maximum amount the air could hold at a given temperature. Higher humidity increases heat perception, as the body cannot dissipate heat as effectively through perspiration.

$\left(\mathrm{A}-\mathrm{B}\times \mathrm{H}\mathrm{R}\right)$ = 0.55 − 0.0055 × RH → This constant adjusts the influence of humidity on thermal sensation. As humidity increases, the RH value causes this term to decrease, modifying how humidity affects heat perception.

($\mathrm{T}\mathrm{a}-\mathrm{C}$) = Ta − 14.5 → This adjustment term calibrates the formula based on a reference point of 14.5 °C. It is included to reflect that the human body responds differently to heat when the temperature is above 14.5 °C, which is considered the minimum threshold for thermal discomfort.

The THI levels and their effects can be observed below in

Table 3. THI levels and their effects.

THI (°F)	THI (°C)	Thermal Stress Level	Description
≤22	−5.5	No thermal stress	Comfortable thermal conditions.
23–24	−5.0 to −4.4	Light thermal stress	Slightly uncomfortable, tolerable for most people or animals.
25–27	−3.8 to −2.7	Moderate thermal stress	Thermal discomfort begins; possible impact on physical activities.
28–30	−2.2 to −1.1	Severe thermal stress	High discomfort; increased risk of heat-related problems.
≥31	−0.5	Very severe (dangerous) thermal stress	Extremely uncomfortable conditions; health or productivity risk.

.

The interaction between temperature and humidity is complex. The body’s primary cooling mechanism is perspiration, but when humidity is high, sweat cannot evaporate properly, making the body perceive more heat than is present.

The Heat Index (HI) and the Temperature–Humidity Index (THI) are key tools for assessing thermal comfort in urban environments, such as parks. These indices integrate essential meteorological variables, such as air temperature, relative humidity, and, in the case of HI, perceived solar radiation, to quantitatively estimate people’s thermal perception in a specific space.

Through these indicators, it is possible to study the impacts of vegetation, projected shade, and the presence of permeable or impermeable surfaces in microclimate regulation. Additionally, the results obtained with these indices facilitate the identification of areas with higher thermal stress, the design of heat mitigation strategies, and the improvement of user experience in terms of comfort.

They can also be correlated with subjective data, such as thermal perception surveys, to analyze the relationship between objective conditions and human sensations, providing a comprehensive understanding of thermal dynamics in public spaces.

It is worth noting that, although wind speed is recognized as one of the variables influencing the perception of thermal comfort in outdoor spaces alongside air temperature and relative humidity [56], it was not considered in the present study. This is because the indices used in the analysis, the Heat Index (HI) and the Temperature–Humidity Index (THI), were selected for their methodological simplicity and the ease of obtaining the required variables, such as air temperature and relative humidity. This choice enables an efficient and consistent evaluation of thermal comfort, further supported by the widespread use of both indices in the scientific literature [48] to assess thermal stress under hot and humid conditions, which facilitates the establishment of reference values in an accessible and comparative manner.

2.2.3. Integrating Perspectives: Thermal Comfort Analysis in the Park

At this stage of the research, we addressed the challenge of integrating different perspectives on thermal comfort in Nuevo Bosque Park. The goal was to establish a dialogue between objective data, obtained through precise environmental measurements, and users’ subjective perceptions, collected through detailed surveys. This integration process was essential to understanding how environmental conditions truly influence the experience of those who use the park. By the end of the study, this convergence of data allowed us to go beyond numerical values and connect with people’s actual feelings within the space.

The central purpose of this integration was threefold:

• Validation of results. The consistency between users’ reported experiences and measured thermal conditions was verified. The agreement between these two lines of evidence reinforced data reliability. For instance, confirming that users perceived intense heat in areas with high temperatures and elevated humidity levels validated both objective measurements and the sensitivity of the subjective measurement tool;
• Discovery of hidden patterns. Exceptions to general trends were explored. Not all experiences are perfectly aligned with the measurements. However, these differences revealed the influence of contextual factors such as humidity, ventilation, and surface type. Analyzing these discrepancies helped identify complex relationships between environmental conditions and comfort perception. Specific patterns were recognized based on different park zones, highlighting the most comfortable areas and those requiring further attention;
• Understanding the human experience. The study deepened the understanding of how environmental factors such as vegetation, water, shade, and materials modulate thermal conditions and, consequently, the perception of thermal comfort. This analysis emphasized the importance of vegetation in creating cooler spaces and users’ preference for permeable surfaces.

By combining objective and subjective perspectives, knowledge of thermal comfort in Nuevo Bosque Park was expanded. This integration process, supported by statistically significant data, was fundamental in identifying areas for improvement and implementing effective strategies to adapt the space to the needs of the community. As a result, the park was transformed into a more comfortable and resilient public space. The combination of objective and subjective data provided valuable insights into the thermal dynamics of the park, offering tools for decision-making focused on user well-being.

3. Results

3.1. Detailed Mapping of Nuevo Bosque Park

The results of the detailed mapping of Nuevo Bosque Park in Commune 9 of Monteria provide an initial foundation for analyzing the influences of different elements within this public space on thermal comfort conditions. Various surface typologies were identified, distinguishing between impermeable, permeable, and vegetated areas, as well as those with tree cover (Figure 2), allowing for a preliminary assessment of their impact on thermal regulation in the environment.

The heterogeneity of the park in terms of coverage and shade reveals that most of the trees are concentrated along the edges, while central areas—especially the sports zone—are more exposed to solar radiation. All park seating structures are made of concrete. The analysis of urban furniture distribution indicates that several of these seats, as well as some areas designated for passive recreation (seating areas), are located in sectors with low direct tree cover. However, the evaluation of projected shade throughout the day shows that some of these areas may benefit from nearby trees’ shade at specific times, partially mitigating solar exposure.

A total inventory of 18 trees was obtained, all of them fruit-bearing and in good phytosanitary condition. Of these, 16 were almond trees (Terminalia catappa), while the remaining 2 were a coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) and a mango tree (Mangifera indica). Appendix B 

Table A4. Inventory and characterization of trees in Nuevo Bosque Park.

ID	Common Name	Scientific Name	Diameter	Phytosanitary Condition	Height (Meters)	Shade Area	Density
1	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	41.3	Good	6.5	419.0	11.5
2	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	27.0	Good	7.6	323.6	10.1
3	Coco	Cocos nucifera	28.6	Good	7.0	95.0	5.5
4	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	22.2	Good	5.9	60.8	4.4
5	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	27.6	Good	7.3	153.9	7.0
6	Mango	Mangifera indica	46.1	Good	7.6	415.4	11.5
7	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	28.6	Good	7.6	132.7	6.5
8	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	15.9	Good	7.6	113.0	6.0
9	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	0.3	Good	7.6	45.3	3.8
10	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	20.6	Good	7.9	100.2	5.6
11	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	13.3	Good	7.6	7.0	1.5
12	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	22.2	Good	8.2	564.0	13.4
13	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	28.6	Good	6.8	452.3	12.0
14	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	20.6	Good	8.2	298.6	9.7
15	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	50.9	Good	7.3	555.6	13.3
16	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	0.3	Good	7.6	471.4	12.2
17	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	1.2	Good	7.3	483.0	12.4
18	Almendro	Terminalia catappa	9.5	Good	7.3	283.5	9.5

provides detailed information on the height, tree density, and shaded area of each inventoried tree.

The mapping of vegetation cover and shadow dynamics allowed for the identification of critical zones with low protection against direct solar radiation. This information is key for future intervention strategies aimed at improving the thermal comfort of the park.

3.2. Estimation of Thermal Comfort

3.2.1. Evaluation of Subjective Perception

The Subjective Perception of Thermal Comfort survey conducted at Parque Cancha El Bosque included a total of 99 participants. The surveyed population consisted of 55.56% men and 44.44% women, with ages ranging from 8 to 72 years, representing a diverse sample in terms of gender and age. Regarding their place of residence, 97.98% of participants live in the vicinity of the park, while 3.03% come from other areas of the city. Studies that have focused on Parque Cancha El Bosque highlight its importance as a recreational option for both the local community and occasional visitors from distant locations [26].

The analysis of thermal conditions as perceived by users of Parque Cancha El Bosque reveals significant patterns in the relationship between environmental factors and comfort experience. In terms of relative humidity, 41.41% of respondents (41 people) reported a neutral sensation, while 35.35% (35 people) indicated feeling slightly warm, and only 2% (2 people) expressed experiencing extreme heat. These figures suggest that, while humidity is present, it is not a highly bothersome factor for most users. This is further supported by the fact that 31.31% of respondents reported some level of discomfort (Figure 3A,B).

Regarding perceived solar radiation, 34.34% of respondents (34 people) rated their experience as neutral, meaning they perceive heat moderately in most areas of the park, indicating that extreme heat sensation is not predominant. However, 65.65% of respondents reported experiencing a negative heat sensation due to solar radiation. Specifically, 33.33% (33 people) considered it slightly warm, 29.29% (29 people) described it as hot, and 3.03% (3 people) reported extreme heat perception due to radiation. Despite the heat sensation expressed by the majority of respondents, only 37.37% indicated some level of discomfort regarding perceived solar radiation (Figure 4A,B).

Regarding perceived temperature, the majority of surveyed visitors, representing 69.69% (69 people), reported feeling the heat at different levels. Among them, 35% (35 people) indicated feeling slightly warm, 32% (32 people) felt hot, and 2% (2 people) reported feeling very hot. On the other hand, the remaining 30% (30 people) described their thermal experience as neutral. In terms of discomfort levels associated with temperature, 45.45% (45 people) expressed experiencing some degree of thermal discomfort, while the rest of the respondents did not report significant discomfort. These results suggest that, while perceived temperatures are mostly tolerable, there are still critical areas within the park that require specific interventions to improve thermal comfort (Figure 5A,B).

The location within the park played a crucial role in visitors’ perception of comfort. Those positioned under trees reported greater satisfaction, with 55.56% (55 people) indicating neutral or slightly warm sensations, and 69.7% (69 people) associating this experience with comfort. In contrast, 75.76% (80 people) of users in exposed areas, such as impermeable asphalt surfaces, reported uncomfortable heat sensations, highlighting the need to increase vegetation cover or install shaded structures.

Elements related to heat sensation also revealed interesting trends; 75% of users (75 people) identified exposure to impermeable surfaces as a critical factor, while 65% (65 people) highlighted lack of shade as a determining factor. It is important to clarify that these percentages do not represent mutually exclusive groups, as many respondents mentioned both factors simultaneously. In contrast, 90.91% (90 people) stated that being under a tree significantly improved thermal comfort, emphasizing the importance of vegetation in mitigating heat.

The relationship between thermal perception, age, and gender showed notable differences. Women reported higher thermal discomfort, especially in exposed areas, with 55% indicating elevated heat sensations compared to 45% of men. In terms of age, participants over 50 years old were more likely to report discomfort, suggesting a higher vulnerability within this demographic group.

The chosen location for recreational activities also had a significant influence. Users who remained in naturally shaded areas or shaded structures reported higher levels of comfort, whereas those in exposed areas noted a more pronounced thermal impact.

These relationships between thermal perception, environmental conditions, and location within the park are not merely anecdotal observations; they are valuable indicators for adaptive urban design, particularly in tropical contexts. The results reinforce that thermal experience is closely tied to the use of space, which implies that thermal comfort should be considered a central criterion in the distribution of urban furniture, the selection of surface materials, and the planning of tree coverage. In this way, the figures not only illustrate data, but also communicate spatial and social needs that must be addressed to improve the habitability and thermal resilience of urban parks. These findings provide actionable evidence for both urban designers and policy-makers, supporting the development of public policies and planning strategies that promote more inclusive, thermally comfortable, and climate-resilient public spaces.

3.2.2. Evaluation of Climate Variables and Index Calculation

Climate Variables

The results obtained from in situ measurements of surface temperature, ambient temperature, and relative humidity reveal significant variations in the thermal conditions of Nuevo Bosque Park throughout the day (Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 8).

Surface temperature, recorded using an infrared thermometer, showed the highest values at midday, reaching a maximum of 51.7 °C, while in the morning and afternoon, the maximum values were 32.0 °C and 45.7 °C, respectively. These results, represented in the surface temperature map, indicate that sun-exposed areas, particularly in sports and seating zones, experience higher thermal stress compared to shaded areas covered by tree canopies.

On the other hand, ambient temperature, measured with a digital thermo-hygrometer, follows a similar trend to surface temperature, though with less extreme variations. According to the ambient temperature map, open areas present higher values, with a maximum of 39.3 °C at midday, while in the morning and afternoon, the maximum values were 36.9 °C and 34.9 °C, respectively. The mitigating effect of vegetation is evident in areas with denser tree coverage, creating cooler microclimates that reduce users’ thermal sensation.

This thermal gap is significant because, according to [25,57], even variations of 2–3 °C can affect people’s sensation of discomfort. When surface temperatures exceed 40 °C or 45 °C, the radiation emitted from the ground increases, intensifying the heat perceived by users. Therefore, the natural cooling effect provided by vegetated areas (reflected in cooler colors) has a notable impact on thermal perception and, ultimately, on the habitability of urban spaces.

Relative humidity, recorded simultaneously with ambient temperature, shows an inverse distribution relative to temperature. The humidity map indicates that in the morning, values are relatively low in open areas, with a minimum of 62.9%, while shaded areas show higher values. At midday, humidity decreases further in exposed zones, reaching a minimum of 36.1%, which increases heat perception and reduces the body’s ability to dissipate heat through perspiration. In the afternoon, humidity rises again in some areas, with values ranging between 49.0% and 76.6%, reflecting the influence of evapotranspiration and the progressive temperature decline.

The highest humidity values in the afternoon are particularly concentrated in children’s play areas and bio-healthy zones, where there is good shade coverage and tree presence. This suggests that vegetation retains more moisture in the environment through evapotranspiration, creating a more humid microclimate. Under extreme heat conditions, this increased humidity may intensify the sensation of mugginess, making it harder for the body to dissipate heat. However, in moderate temperatures, this humidity can alleviate dryness and improve thermal comfort, making the environment more pleasant for visitors.

These results reinforce the importance of vegetation in the thermal regulation of the park, as areas with higher tree density exhibit lower temperatures and more stable humidity levels throughout the day. Additionally, they highlight the vulnerability of certain sun-exposed areas, where thermal conditions may generate significant heat stress, affecting visitor comfort and length of stay. This information is crucial for planning strategies to optimize the distribution of urban furniture and vegetation coverage, ultimately enhancing thermal comfort in the park.

The analysis of surface temperature, ambient temperature, and relative humidity reveals that the location of urban furniture, particularly benches, directly influences users’ thermal perception. At midday, when surface temperatures peak at 51.7 °C in exposed areas, several benches are located in zones with high heat accumulation, especially in sports fields and paved areas. These conditions generate severe thermal stress, rendering urban furniture ineffective during the hottest hours. Conversely, benches located in shaded areas exhibit lower surface temperatures, though in some cases, they are subject to higher relative humidity levels, particularly in the afternoon. This vegetation-driven evapotranspiration effect can alleviate dryness in moderate temperatures but also increase the sensation of mugginess under extreme heat conditions.

The ambient temperature distribution reinforces these findings, with maximum values of 39.3 °C at midday, primarily affecting benches exposed to direct sunlight, where the lack of shade intensifies heat stress. Meanwhile, benches in tree-covered areas may benefit from slightly lower temperatures, though elevated humidity in some zones may cause discomfort. This balance between temperature, humidity, and shade must be considered in the design of urban furniture, as benches without shade experience the most adverse conditions, whereas those in vegetated areas may offer cooler microclimates, albeit with a potentially stifling humidity sensation at certain times of the day. These results highlight the need for the strategic planning of urban furniture placement to minimize solar exposure and optimize thermal comfort based on the interaction between temperature, humidity, and vegetation coverage.

Regarding park surface types, the analysis of surface temperature, ambient temperature, and relative humidity reveals a significant impact on thermal regulation and comfort perception. Impermeable surfaces, such as concrete and paved areas, register the highest surface temperatures, reaching 51.7 °C at midday, which contributes to heat accumulation and raises the ambient temperature in surrounding areas. This effect is particularly noticeable in sports zones and open spaces without shade, where ambient temperature peaks at 39.3 °C. In contrast, vegetated and permeable surfaces exhibit lower temperatures due to their thermal dissipation capacity and evapotranspiration, creating cooler microclimates, especially in tree-covered areas.

Relative humidity also reflects the influence of surface type. Areas with greater vegetation coverage show higher humidity levels in the afternoon, peaking at 76.6% in bio-healthy and children’s play areas, which helps regulate temperature and prevent excessive dryness. However, under extreme heat conditions, increased humidity may intensify the sensation of mugginess, affecting comfort perception. In contrast, impermeable surfaces tend to lower relative humidity, with minimum values of 36.1% at midday, intensifying the sensation of heat and dryness. These findings emphasize the need for urban design strategies that prioritize vegetated surfaces and materials with lower heat retention while optimizing the distribution of urban furniture and tree coverage to enhance thermal comfort in the park.

Index Calculation

The results of the thermal comfort analysis in Nuevo Bosque Park, obtained from the calculation of the Heat Index (HI) and the Temperature–Humidity Index (THI), reveal significant variations in thermal conditions throughout the day and across different areas of the park.

The HI results (°C), presented in

Table 4. Risk level and health impact in different scenarios of Nuevo Bosque Park, according to the Heat Index (HI).

Typology of Scenery in the Park	Time of Day	Heat Index (HI) °F	Heat Index (HI) °C	Risk Level	Health Impact
Sports	In the morning	89.6	32	Very severe heat stress (dangerous)	Extremely uncomfortable conditions; danger to health or productivity.
	At noon	87.8	31	Severe heat stress	High discomfort; increased risk of heat-related problems.
	In the afternoon	82.4	28	Severe heat stress	High discomfort; increased risk of heat-related problems.
Bio-healthy	In the morning	80.6	27	Moderate heat stress	Thermal discomfort begins; possible impairment in physical activities.
	At noon	78.8	26	Moderate heat stress	Thermal discomfort begins; possible impairment in physical activities.
	In the afternoon	82.4	28	Severe heat stress	High discomfort; increased risk of heat-related problems.
Stay	In the morning	86.0	30	Severe heat stress	High discomfort; increased risk of heat-related problems.
	At noon	82.4	28	Severe heat stress	High discomfort; increased risk of heat-related problems.
	In the afternoon	82.4	28	Severe heat stress	High discomfort; increased risk of heat-related problems.
Children’s	In the morning	80.6	27	Moderate heat stress	Thermal discomfort begins; possible impairment in physical activities.
	At noon	80.6	27	Moderate heat stress	Thermal discomfort begins; possible impairment in physical activities.
	In the afternoon	82.4	28	Severe heat stress	High discomfort; increased risk of heat-related problems.

, show that the sports area has the highest thermal stress values, reaching an HI of 32 °C in the morning, which is classified as very severe thermal stress, with extremely uncomfortable conditions and risks to health and productivity. At midday, the index slightly decreases to 31 °C, remaining within the range of severe thermal stress, implying high discomfort and an increased risk of heat-related issues. In the afternoon, although air temperature decreases, the index remains at 28 °C, indicating severe thermal stress with a high level of discomfort.

Passive recreation areas, such as outdoor fitness zones and seating areas, also reflect severe thermal stress conditions for most of the day. According to Table 4 (HI results in °C), in the morning, the outdoor fitness zone registers an HI of 27 °C, increasing to 28 °C in the afternoon, suggesting increasing thermal discomfort as the day progresses. In seating areas, the HI ranges from 30 °C in the morning to 28 °C in the afternoon, confirming that users in these spaces may experience significant thermal discomfort.

The Temperature–Humidity Index (THI) values, presented in

Table 5. Risk level and health impact in different scenarios of Nuevo Bosque Park, according to the Temperature–Humidity Index (THI).

Typology of Scenery in the Park	Time of Day	Temperature Humidity Index (THI) °F	Temperature Humidity Index (THI) °C	Risk Level	Health Impact
Sports	In the morning	131	55.0	Very dangerous	Heat stroke is highly likely, even with short-term exposure.
	At noon	112	44.4	Dangerous	Heat stroke and heat exhaustion are likely.
	In the afternoon	99	37.2	Extreme caution	Risk of heat cramps and heat exhaustion, heat stroke possible with prolonged exposure.
Bio-healthy	In the morning	94	34.4	Extreme caution	Risk of heat cramps and heat exhaustion, heat stroke possible with prolonged exposure.
	At noon	91	32.7	Extreme caution	Risk of heat cramps and heat exhaustion, heat stroke possible with prolonged exposure.
	In the afternoon	98	36.6	Extreme caution	Risk of heat cramps and heat exhaustion, heat stroke possible with prolonged exposure.
Stay	In the morning	114	45.5	Dangerous	Heat stroke and heat exhaustion are likely.
	At noon	100	37.7	Extreme caution	Risk of heat cramps and heat exhaustion, heat stroke possible with prolonged exposure.
	In the afternoon	99	37.2	Extreme caution	Risk of heat cramps and heat exhaustion, heat stroke possible with prolonged exposure.
Children’s	In the morning	95	35.0	Extreme caution	Risk of heat cramps and heat exhaustion, heat stroke possible with prolonged exposure.
	At noon	91	32.7	Caution	Risk of heat fatigue with prolonged exposure or intense activity
	In the afternoon	100	37.7	Extreme caution	Risk of heat cramps and exhaustion, heat stroke possible with prolonged exposure.

(THI results in °F), reinforce these findings. The sports area reaches a THI of 131 °F in the morning, classified as “very dangerous”, where the likelihood of heatstroke is extremely high, even with short-term exposure. At midday, the value drops to 112 °F, although it still poses a risk of heat exhaustion and severe dehydration. Other areas, such as outdoor fitness zones and seating areas, register values between 95 °F and 100 °F, placing them around “extreme caution” levels, indicating a high risk of cramps, heat exhaustion, and possible heatstroke with prolonged exposure.

The comparative analysis of both indices reveals that shaded areas created by vegetation play a key role in reducing thermal stress, although their impact varies depending on the density and location of tree coverage. While the most sun-exposed areas show the highest levels of thermal discomfort, the mitigating effect of vegetation is evident in some zones where partial shade helps reduce perceived temperature. However, the overall HI and THI values indicate that most areas of the park experience high levels of thermal discomfort for most of the day, highlighting the need for intervention strategies to improve tree distribution, optimize shaded spaces, and regulate heat exposure in areas of high physical and recreational activity.

3.3. Integrating Perspectives: Analysis of Thermal Comfort in Nuevo Bosque Park

3.3.1. Relationship Between Thermal Comfort and Urban Furniture

The distribution of urban furniture in the park significantly influences users’ thermal perception. Many benches are located in areas with high solar exposure, where surface and ambient temperatures reach their highest values, reducing their functionality during the hottest hours. In contrast, benches in shaded areas have lower temperatures, although in some cases, they experience higher relative humidity levels in the afternoon.

The results suggest that benches exposed to direct sunlight can cause severe thermal stress for users, while those under tree shade provide more comfortable conditions. However, in areas with dense vegetation, the increase in humidity might lead to less pleasant thermal sensations. These findings reinforce the need for strategic planning of urban furniture placement, prioritizing moderate shade and adequate ventilation to optimize thermal comfort.

3.3.2. Influence of Surface Type on Thermal Perception

The type of surface in the park directly influences thermal regulation and comfort perception. Impermeable surfaces, such as concrete, exhibit the highest surface temperature values, contributing to the increase in ambient temperature in surrounding areas. In contrast, vegetated and permeable surfaces maintain lower temperatures and greater stability in humidity levels, favoring thermal regulation.

Areas with high vegetation coverage have a moderating effect on climate, with lower temperatures and higher humidity retention in the afternoon. However, under extreme heat conditions, this increased humidity may intensify the sensation of mugginess. For most surveyed users, perceived humidity was not a discomfort factor, although higher humidity combined with high temperatures can create a hostile thermal effect. Areas with impermeable surfaces experience greater thermal amplitude, with higher temperatures at midday and rapid heat dissipation in the afternoon, resulting in a drier and hotter environment.

3.3.3. Relationship Between Thermal Perception and HI and THI Indices

The results of the Heat Index (HI) and the Temperature–Humidity Index (THI) were compared with users’ perceptions, revealing both consistencies and discrepancies that may have important implications for health and the planning of sports and recreational spaces in the park.

Sports areas: In the sports areas, the HI reached 32 °C in the morning and 28 °C in the afternoon—values classified as severe heat stress [58,59]. Most respondents reported “extreme discomfort” and avoided physical activity during those times, indicating a strong correlation between the objective classification of “severe stress” and the perception of discomfort. However, some participants—especially young people and individuals accustomed to the heat—underestimated the risk by not perceiving the temperature as overwhelming. This discrepancy may pose a health risk, as prolonged exposure to heat stress conditions can lead to fatigue, dehydration, or even heat stroke [59].

Outdoor sports areas and playgrounds: In these areas, the presence of vegetation partially reduced temperatures, lowering HI and THI values compared to the sports zones. Nevertheless, the increase in humidity during the afternoon created a “stifling” sensation of heat for some visitors, even when temperatures were lower. This suggests that, although the index may objectively classify the condition as “moderate” or “mild”, subjective perception can worsen when relative humidity is high [58]. If people do not properly associate humidity with the body’s reduced ability to dissipate heat, they may remain exposed for longer periods without taking precautions (e.g., hydration or rest), increasing the likelihood of discomfort or heat-related health issues.

Areas with intermittent shade and natural ventilation: In zones with greater air movement and scattered trees, HI and THI values were similar to those in other areas, but users reported less thermal discomfort. This apparent discrepancy may be explained by the cooling sensation provided by ventilation and partial shading, which help mitigate perceived heat stress [60]. However, if relative humidity remains high, users may underestimate the actual level of heat stress and prolong their stay, which under extreme heat conditions could have negative health consequences [58].

Overall, when HI and THI classify a condition as “severe heat stress”, most people perceive a high level of discomfort and reduce physical activity. However, in cases where the indices indicate “moderate” or “mild” stress, factors such as high humidity or lack of airflow can intensify the sensation of heat without users being fully aware of the risk [59]. This misalignment between objective measurements and subjective perception can lead people to remain in potentially hazardous thermal conditions for longer periods, increasing the probability of heat-related health problems. Therefore, one of the key contributions of this study is the need to integrate both index data (HI and THI) and participant feedback to design more effective mitigation strategies and prevent health risks in warm urban environments.

4. Discussion

The present study employs a multiperspective approach to evaluating thermal comfort in urban parks by integrating subjective perception surveys, quantitative environmental measurements, and spatial mapping. This methodology provides a broader understanding of the phenomenon compared to previous studies, many of which rely exclusively on quantitative indices or modeling techniques.

One of the main differentiating factors of this research is the integration of subjective perception surveys with environmental measurements and spatial mapping. Studies such as those by [25,61] primarily rely on Temperature–Humidity Indices (THI) or Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) to assess thermal comfort in tropical cities. While these models are useful for general heat stress estimations, they do not include direct feedback from park users; in contrast [62], incorporated perception surveys to evaluate thermal sensation and preference in Prague’s urban environments, but their analysis remained limited to correlations with predefined indices and lacked spatial mapping. Our study advances this approach by linking subjective experiences with microclimatic measurements and identifying spatial patterns of discomfort, offering actionable insights for urban park design under tropical conditions.

Similar approaches have been found in studies such as [22], who combined perception surveys with environmental measurements to assess thermal neutrality in public spaces located in semi-arid regions. Their findings confirm widespread discomfort during hot periods, particularly in areas with elevated radiant temperatures. While their study demonstrates the importance of measuring perceived comfort in relation to climatic conditions, it did not explicitly analyze the influence of shading, surface materials, or airflow. In contrast, our study builds on this approach by incorporating spatial analysis that identifies specific thermal risk zones, and links perceived discomfort to the presence or absence of shade, ventilation, and the type of surface material.

A particularly noteworthy finding of this research is the correlation observed between the perception survey data and the quantitative environmental measurements. Unlike many previous studies, which either rely solely on subjective responses or on numerical models, this research demonstrates that people’s reported thermal comfort levels align with recorded temperature and humidity variations. This alignment not only validates the reliability of perception-based assessments, but also underscores the importance of integrating human experience into environmental analysis. Many studies, such as those by [63], apply models like PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) and COMFA to assess thermal comfort in outdoor spaces, but they do not incorporate direct subjective assessments. For instance, Ref. [63] conducted a comparative analysis of both indices in vegetated open spaces of arid cities, demonstrating their methodological suitability and contrasting results, but without linking them to users’ perceptions or behavioral responses. Similarly [64], analyzed urban climatic quality through surveys and environmental measurements in the city of Chillán, Chile, and although their work included both perceived and instrumental thermal comfort using an adapted ASV index, the correlation between subjective responses and measured environmental variables was low (Spearman’s ρ = 0.32), especially under extreme heat conditions. In contrast, our study found a higher degree of consistency between users’ thermal perception and the recorded microclimatic conditions, including variables such as surface material and vegetation cover, thereby bridging the gap between physiological models and real-world subjective experiences. This integrated approach enhances the accuracy and contextual relevance of thermal comfort evaluations in public spaces.

Another important distinction lies in the spatial detail captured. Many studies in this field, such as those conducted in Pontianak by [65] and in Bahía Blanca by [66], rely on broader-scale THI assessments or single-point measurements, which overlook the spatial heterogeneity of thermal comfort conditions. While both studies emphasize the role of vegetation and material surfaces in modulating heat, they do not incorporate high-resolution spatial mapping to identify localized discomfort zones. Similarly, Ref. [63] evaluated thermal comfort using deductive indices such as PMV and COMFA in arid urban spaces, but their approach remained conceptual and lacked integration with on-site spatial variability or user behavior. Ref. [67], in his study of urban canyons in Barcelona, did analyze microclimatic differences based on morphological parameters like sky view factor and street orientation, but his work focuses more on urban form than user thermal perception. The present study, however, combines detailed microclimatic measurements with user-reported comfort and spatial analysis, allowing for the precise identification of thermal risk zones within the park. This level of detail provides urban planners with localized insights that are essential for targeted interventions—an analytical depth that is often missing in other studies.

An additional perspective comes from [68], who used the UTCI index to assess thermal comfort in urban green spaces in arid environments. Their findings highlight the role of tree distribution in mitigating heat stress, and propose minimum bioclimatic parameters (e.g., minimum surface area, tree canopy coverage, and solar permeability) necessary for effective cooling in arid cities. While this approach provides valuable insights for standardizing green space planning, it does not incorporate the fine-scale spatial mapping applied in this study, which captures localized variations more precisely. Moreover, unlike our analysis—which links thermal perception with microclimatic conditions and behavioral patterns, such as bench usage and time of stay—Ref. [68] focuses primarily on physiological indices without integrating user perceptions or spatial behaviors. Moreover, this study goes beyond conventional thermal comfort evaluations by conducting an exhaustive inventory of urban elements, including park furniture, vegetation types, surface materials, and the spatial distribution of climatic variables. This comprehensive mapping effort provides a multidimensional perspective on how different environmental and infrastructural factors interact to influence thermal comfort. The combination of microclimate data with spatial attributes offers a more refined understanding of the thermal dynamics within urban parks, a level of detail that is rarely achieved in similar studies.

Moreover, this study goes beyond conventional thermal comfort evaluations by conducting an exhaustive inventory of urban elements, including park furniture, vegetation types, surface materials, and the spatial distribution of climatic variables. This comprehensive mapping effort provides a multidimensional perspective on how different environmental and infrastructural factors interact to influence thermal comfort. The combination of microclimate data with spatial attributes offers a more refined understanding of the thermal dynamics within urban parks, a level of detail that is rarely achieved in similar studies.

The quantitative methods used in this research further distinguish it from others. While [63,69] primarily rely on thermal indices such as UTCI, PET, or WBGT to assess outdoor comfort levels, they do not combine these with high-resolution field measurements or user perception data. Similarly, Ref. [70] applied the COMFA model in arid zones, integrating some subjective feedback, but their spatial resolution and thermal behavior mapping were limited. By contrast, this study merges real-time microclimatic measurements—air and surface temperatures, humidity—with users’ reported sensations, offering a more grounded and spatially accurate understanding of thermal comfort.

Notably, Ref. [71] demonstrated that tensile membrane structures (TMS) can reduce PET by up to 2.4 °C and MRT by 5.4 °C, showing the efficacy of structural shading elements in mitigating heat stress. However, their work relies heavily on simulations and structured literature synthesis, without mapping thermal experiences or discomfort zones at the user level as done in our study. Incorporating these design-oriented considerations into future work—particularly the cooling potential of TMS—could further strengthen the real-world applicability of thermal comfort strategies in urban parks.

There are, however, certain limitations to this approach. Unlike studies that utilize long-term climatic projections—e.g., Ref. [72]—this research is based on real-time data, meaning its findings are highly localized and may not be generalizable to different urban settings or seasonal variations. Additionally, perception surveys, while valuable, introduce a degree of subjectivity that might not be present in purely numerical indices. Despite these limitations, this research provides a practical, real-world application for designing thermally comfortable urban spaces, as opposed to solely relying on theoretical or simulation-based studies.

Beyond validating existing theories, the results of this study offer new insights that are especially relevant for the design and adaptation of urban parks in tropical contexts. The spatialized comparison between subjective thermal perception and measured environmental conditions revealed specific zones within the park where thermal discomfort is intensified due to inadequate shade, high surface temperatures, and limited ventilation. These findings are not only statistically consistent, but also aligned with users’ real experiences, reinforcing the importance of integrating thermal comfort as a central design criterion.

For instance, benches placed in sun-exposed areas became unusable during peak hours, while those located in partially shaded areas were more frequently used—even if accompanied by higher humidity. Likewise, areas with permeable or vegetated surfaces exhibited measurable reductions in both surface and ambient temperatures, confirming their value in mitigating heat stress.

These patterns suggest that simple interventions, such as redistributing furniture under tree cover, increasing the density of shade trees in sports zones, or incorporating materials with lower thermal retention, can significantly improve thermal comfort. Such design adjustments not only improve user experience, but also have public health implications, particularly for vulnerable populations like the elderly, children, and women, who reported higher levels of discomfort.

Additionally, the mismatch observed in some areas between thermal indices (HI and THI) and users’ perceptions highlights the need for policy frameworks and design manuals to incorporate both objective and subjective assessments. This ensures that planning decisions are not based solely on climatic thresholds, but also reflect human responses and behavioral patterns.

In this sense, the methodology proposed here—combining microclimatic measurements, spatial analysis, and perception surveys—can be adopted as a diagnostic tool in municipal programs for climate adaptation. It offers a replicable and low-cost strategy for identifying thermal vulnerabilities and guiding localized interventions in parks and public spaces across similar climatic regions.

Therefore, this study not only contributes to academic discussions on urban microclimates, but also provides actionable knowledge for architects, urban designers, and policymakers seeking to build more livable, inclusive, and heat-resilient cities.

5. Conclusions

This study has demonstrated that integrating thermal perception surveys, field environmental measurements, and detailed mapping provides a more accurate and contextualized assessment of thermal comfort in urban public spaces. Unlike conventional methodologies based solely on numerical models or generalized thermal indices, this approach allowed for a correlation between users’ subjective perceptions and measured microclimatic conditions, strengthening the validity of the obtained results.

The findings indicate that areas with greater vegetation density exhibit significantly lower temperatures and higher levels of thermal comfort compared to zones with impermeable surfaces and low tree coverage. Additionally, the study identified that the arrangement of urban furniture and natural ventilation plays a crucial role in users’ thermal experiences, confirming that vegetation alone is not sufficient to ensure thermal comfort unless combined with adequate spatial planning strategies.

A detailed analysis of Nuevo Bosque Park revealed critical areas with prolonged exposure to solar radiation, particularly in sports and passive recreation areas. These results suggest that future interventions should consider the strategic relocation of urban furniture and the incorporation of solutions such as vegetative covers, materials with higher thermal reflectivity, and the use of shading structures to mitigate thermal stress.

While this study captured spatial variations in thermal comfort with a high level of detail, one of its limitations is the lack of integration of advanced thermal indices such as UTCI, PET, and WBGT, which could provide a complementary perspective on users’ physiological responses to environmental conditions. Incorporating these indices in future research would facilitate comparisons with international studies, and enhance the applicability of the findings in various urban contexts.

In practical terms, the results obtained can contribute to urban planning and the design of more resilient parks in the face of extreme climatic conditions. By providing a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing users’ thermal perception, this study offers valuable insights for formulating urban heat mitigation strategies, promoting the development of more sustainable and livable public spaces.

Finally, it is recommended to expand the analysis across different seasons to evaluate the seasonal variability of thermal comfort, as well as to replicate the methodology in other urban parks with diverse environmental and socioeconomic characteristics. This will validate the applicability of the multiperspective approach in different scenarios and refine climate adaptation strategies in urban environments.