Safer Nights Out: The Role of Mobile Apps in Preventing Sexual Violence

Abstract

Engaging in nightlife activities is an essential form of leisure, especially among young people. However, it also presents considerable risks associated with the occurrence of various forms of violence. Recently, increasing attention has been directed toward sexual violence occurring in nightlife settings. Despite numerous preventive efforts, such as awareness raising, bystander intervention training, alcohol policies, and situational preventive measures, sexual violence remains a persistent issue in nightlife contexts. With the extended usage of smartphones, mobile apps represent a promising approach that complements sexual violence prevention. This article presents findings from a systematic literature review and an online overview of mobile apps aimed at the intervention and prevention of sexual violence, focusing on identifying features suitable for nightlife contexts. The literature review revealed limited academic resources addressing such mobile apps, with only six articles found across four databases. An online review highlighted a wide range of mobile apps that tackle violence. However, when it comes to sexual violence, only 18 apps explicitly focus on prevention or intervention. Although many apps address some aspects of the problem, we noticed a lack of a comprehensive approach that would target all relevant stakeholders. Based on the conducted mobile app’s feature assessment, we propose a set of functionalities that should be incorporated into a holistic mobile app for nightlife sexual violence prevention, which may complement existing educational, community-based, and structural prevention efforts.

1. Introduction

Urbanization and globalization have significantly transformed cities, prompting the integration of digital technologies to enhance sustainability, efficiency, and urban quality of life [1,2]. The concept of smart cities has emerged from these shifts, aiming to balance economic competitiveness and sustainable development [2]. Defined as urban areas where traditional services are optimized through digital solutions, smart cities aim to enhance public safety and the quality of life for both residents and businesses [3,4].

Nightlife areas are vital components of urban public space, contributing to cultural vibrancy, tourism, and economic development. They serve as dynamic environments for social interaction, offering employment opportunities and enhancing the city’s appeal [5,6,7]. As a result, nightlife planning has become a key element in intercity competition and urban policy agendas [8]. Shaw [9] defines nightlife as a collection of evening activities—such as dining, drinking, dancing, and socializing—taking place in pubs, bars, clubs, and restaurants. Its prominence has grown in response to lifestyle shifts, including increased night-time leisure and work patterns [10].

Feelings of safety have a significant influence on participation in nightlife. Van Liempt [11] pointed out that individuals consume more when they feel safe. Cities have responded with various policies aimed at enhancing security in nightlife venues. However, as Van Liempt also noted, different stakeholders—including local authorities, business owners, and security personnel—often have conflicting interests and varying levels of power and influence when negotiating safety measures, all while maintaining a vibrant nightlife atmosphere.

For young people in particular, nightlife represents not only leisure but also a space for social interaction, self-expression, and cultural exploration [5,12,13]. However, nightlife environments also carry notable risks, including excessive alcohol and drug use, antisocial behavior, and various forms of violence, including sexual violence [6,7,14]. Sexual violence encompasses various unwanted behaviors of a sexual nature, which, besides forced sexual intercourse, also includes sexual harassment in a verbal, non-verbal, or physical form [15,16]. The prevalence of such violence in nightlife settings contributes to heightened fear and a diminished sense of safety, especially among women, who often limit their social engagement to avoid perceived threats [17]. Consequently, for many, nightlife areas may become exclusive rather than inclusive [18]. Roberts [19] emphasizes that the physical design and the spatial organization of nightlife venues influence patterns of interaction and social cohesion. Similarly, Rader [20] highlights that a fear of crime is socially learned and often disproportionate to the actual risk, with women and marginalized groups particularly affected by culturally transmitted messages of vulnerability.

Despite the broad impact of sexual violence, research on prevention strategies—especially within nightlife contexts—remains limited. Quigg et al. [21], in their review of 61 studies, identified only 19 addressing prevention or responses to sexual violence in nightlife settings. The discourse surrounding the prevention of sexual violence centers on various strategies, including bystander intervention training, environmental modifications within venues, the implementation of comprehensive alcohol policies, and initiatives aimed at raising awareness [22,23,24,25]. However, the application of digital tools to support these efforts remains underdeveloped. What is more concerning is that preventive measures are rarely observed in nightlife venues, and when they are implemented, they stem from situational preventive measures, with the presence of security guards in nightlife venues being the most noted among patrons, nightlife personnel, and stakeholders [26].

Sexual violence affects not only individual victims [27] but also the broader societal context in which such violence occurs. The nightlife sector plays a key role in shaping urban public space, fostering social capital, and building interpersonal networks. Failure to address violence undermines these benefits and may reduce public trust in urban safety frameworks [18].

In urban areas, the likelihood of bystander intervention in sexual violence incidents is generally low due to personal acquaintances, the diffusion of responsibility, and the bystander effect [28]. Intervention is more likely when the victim is known to the bystander [29,30], and when the perceived severity of the incident is higher [31,32]. This underscores the importance of supporting additional self-protective strategies, which have been recognized as viable complements to existing prevention efforts [26].

As cities transition into smart environments, digital technologies—especially mobile apps—offer new possibilities for addressing safety challenges. With mobile device use deeply integrated into everyday life, including nightlife activities, young people’s experiences of social interaction, space, and safety are increasingly shaped by digital tools [33].

This article addresses the persistent occurrence of sexual violence in nightlife settings and investigates the underutilization of mobile apps as supplementary tools for prevention and intervention. While traditional strategies remain essential, we argue that mobile technologies—if ethically and inclusively designed—can offer added value in addressing safety in nightlife contexts. Using an innovative approach, this research combines a systematic review of academic literature with an online scan of available mobile apps to examine how these apps are currently used and how they could be improved to prevent sexual violence in nightlife settings. Unlike previous studies that focus on individual user groups or specific functionalities, this research takes a stakeholder-inclusive perspective, considering the needs of potential victims, bystanders, nightlife venues, local governments, and emergency services. Conceptually, we draw on the World Health Organization’s ecological model [34] of violence prevention, acknowledging the complex interplay of individual, relational, community, and societal factors. It also incorporates insights from intersectionality and digital ethics, advocating for technologies that are inclusive, empowering, and non-stigmatizing. By identifying existing limitations and promising features, this research provides a foundation for developing more effective and inclusive mobile apps that support existing prevention efforts and improve safety in urban nightlife environments. Our findings reveal a significant gap in both academic research and the practical application of such apps, underscoring the need for further research and development.

2. Sexual Violence in Urban Nightlife Entertainment Spots

Sexual violence in nightlife environments is influenced by a complex mix of environmental, social, and individual factors. The definition of particular sexual behavior as a form of sexual violence depends largely on the perception of the person targeted, who must regard the behavior as unwanted [35]. These behaviors encompass any sexual act or attempted acquisition thereof, unwelcome sexually related comments or advances, actions related to human trafficking, and any other acts targeting a person’s sexuality carried out through coercion, with the perpetrator potentially being anyone, regardless of their relationship to the victim [15]. The line between victimization and normal sexual behavior is often unclear in nightlife areas [36], where legal definitions are vague and behaviors considered sexual violence are often insufficiently regulated [37]. The grey area between misdemeanors and criminal offenses further complicates classification, as these acts are notoriously difficult to prove and thus are rarely treated as criminal offenses in practice [38]. Although many instances of sexual violence do not result in physical harm, they can produce long-term psychological, emotional, and social consequences for victims [27].

The intricate interplay between densely populated and hyper-diverse urban demographics [39,40,41], along with the distinctive nightlife trends that emerge from the complexities of urban living [42], significantly shapes the density and diversity of nightlife. Multiple factors across individual, relationship, and community levels contribute to sexual violence related to nightlife [21], such as alcohol consumption, crowded venues, and music genre [43]. Alcohol, in particular, is frequently cited as a major factor: it not only affects judgment and perception but can also normalize aggressive behavior and skew how sexual advances are interpreted, especially when intoxicated individuals perceive such advances as acceptable [37,44]. Alcohol consumption, often a common factor in these incidents, complicates dynamics, as both intoxication and social expectations may increase the risks of violence [45,46].

The prevalence of sexual violence in nightlife venues is significantly underreported, often due to fear, shame, or prior substance use [47]. Nevertheless, available data indicate a widespread problem. Quigg et al. [21] reported lifetime prevalence rates exceeding 50% in various populations. In Ontario, Canada, 50% of young female bar patrons reported experiencing unwanted sexual contact on a single night [48], while studies in the United States show lifetime sexual violence rates of 57% among men and women [37] and rates as high as 80% among women [36]. Slovenian research confirms that sexual violence is a global nightlife issue, with only 18.3% of patrons, 5.3% of personnel, and no stakeholders reporting that they had never observed such incidents [26]. Gendered patterns are consistent: Baldwin et al. [49] found that 20% of women, compared to 5% of men, experienced unwanted sexual attention during a night out, while Graham et al. [50] noted that male perpetrators and female victims accounted for up to 90% of incidents. Similarly, Fung et al. [25] found that approximately 6.2% of nightclub patrons admitted to physical aggression, and 3.8% to acts of sexual aggression. These findings highlight the ongoing and widespread problem of sexual violence in nightlife environments, emphasizing the urgent need for targeted prevention efforts, better reporting systems, and structural changes that address the environmental and cultural factors fueling this type of violence.

3. Prevention of Sexual Violence During the Nighttime

Sexual violence is a persistent global public health challenge that deeply affects individuals and communities [24]. Effective prevention must address the interplay of individual behaviors, environmental settings, and broader sociocultural norms. The public health model organizes prevention into three levels: primary prevention seeks to stop violence before it occurs through awareness, education, and structural change; secondary prevention involves rapid response during or immediately after an incident to minimize harm; and tertiary prevention supports victims post-incident to reduce long-term effects and prevent re-victimization [22,23,24,25,34]. This framework provides a foundation for evaluating various strategies and tools, including those used in nightlife settings.

A considerable body of literature supports multilevel strategies such as tailored bystander training, venue design modifications, and stronger alcohol policies as effective approaches to preventing sexual violence in nightlife settings [22,23,24,25]. For example, Hou et al. [51] emphasize the importance of a comprehensive approach that incorporates environmental, social, and economic factors to foster safety and inclusivity. Complementary to these efforts, political strategies like zero-tolerance policies [52] and high-profile awareness campaigns such as # MeToo [53] and Ask for Angela [54] have played key roles in shaping public discourse and individual awareness.

Staff training and community interventions are particularly effective in nightlife contexts. Quigg et al. [23] found that customized bystander training significantly improved the ability of staff and peers to detect and respond to risky situations. Similarly, Powers and Leili [55] demonstrated that improving staff awareness directly impacts intervention. Community programs like STOP Sexual Violence [56] further underscore the value of empowering individuals to act. even in complex nightlife environments marked by loud music, alcohol, and crowding [57].

Environmental and policy interventions also show promise. Venue characteristics such as layout, lighting, and alcohol availability significantly affect the likelihood of aggressive behavior [25]. Lippy and De Gue [24] argue that alcohol regulation, in particular, can help reshape social dynamics and reduce enabling conditions for violence. Other measures, like sexual assault drug detection kits [58] remain controversial, with concerns about false results creating either a false sense of security or unnecessary panic. Fileborn [59] notes that prevention should not place an excessive burden on staff but rather encourage collaborative partnerships between management, patrons, and local authorities. Gunby et al. [46] also stress the role of licensed venues as sites for active intervention through messaging and cultural engagement.

Digital tools are now becoming more vital in these prevention initiatives. Avilés et al. [60] point to the growing use of mobile phone safety features by young women to enhance their safety in nightlife settings, signaling a shift toward tech-enabled prevention. This aligns with broader urban trends toward digital integration and smart-city development. Cities like Amsterdam, Barcelona, and Stockholm are implementing advanced technologies—such as Internet of Things, mobile apps, and real-time data feedback—to enhance emergency response, improve service accessibility, and ensure public safety [4,61,62,63,64].

In this context, mobile safety apps have emerged as relevant tools within smart city ecosystems. These apps, designed for use on smartphones and tablets, offer practical features like GPS tracking, emergency alerts, and incident reporting. While their functions are often limited, they provide users with real-time services and represent an important innovation in the effort to prevent sexual violence in public spaces, particularly in dynamic environments like nightlife venues [60].

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Systematic Literature Review

This systematic review was conducted following the PRISMA guidelines. We determined the field of interest: the use of mobile apps in sexual violence prevention. The systematic literature review was conducted in March 2025, using four databases: IEEE Xplore, Web of Science (WOS), Scopus, and Wiley Online Library. The selection of databases was based on their extensive coverage of technology and social sciences literature, though this choice may have limited our exposure to studies published in databases more focused on criminology or public health. Firstly, we tried to use a narrow search string, namely (“sexual violence”) AND (“nightlife”) AND (“prevention”) AND (“app”), but it did not yield any results. After that, we opted for a broader search string: (“sexual violence”) AND (“prevention”) AND (“app”). The broader research strategy aimed to gather as many results relevant to the topic at hand. While we recognize the limitations resulting from the exclusion of synonyms or controlled vocabularies, we chose not to restrict our findings by incorporating overly specific topics. We utilized the operator AND. Except for Scopus and WOS, where we selected the search filter by topic, we searched by keywords in the other databases.

All authors independently screened articles based on their titles and abstracts. We excluded articles that did not involve mobile apps for preventing or responding to sexual violence. Secondly, the authors reviewed the full texts of the articles separately and consulted one another when in doubt. Any article (regardless of its typology or study design) providing information about the use of mobile apps in preventing or responding to sexual violence was deemed acceptable. The research was not limited by the publication year or language. The article was omitted if it only referenced mobile apps without exploring those designed to prevent or tackle incidents of sexual violence. Information regarding the author, year, brief description, objectives, target demographic, context, technical features, prevention approach, study limitations, and the use of the analyzed mobile app in the nightlife context, if present, was collected, followed by a quality assessment.

4.2. Online Overview of Mobile Apps for the Prevention and Intervention of Sexual Violence

To obtain comprehensive insights into prevention and intervention strategies, as well as the characteristics of mobile apps designed to address sexual violence in nightlife settings, we conducted an online review of such apps in March 2025. As a starting point, we used the supplementary table by Bivens and Hasinoff [65], which lists 215 mobile apps related to sexual violence. Based on their list, we conducted a Google search to locate and evaluate these apps.

Although we restricted the search to the previously mentioned list and used Google search rather than native app stores like Google Play or the Apple App Store, this decision was made based on several methodological and practical reasons. App stores apply region-specific filters that may prevent some apps from appearing in local search results. As this study is based in Slovenia, restricting our search to local app stores would likely have excluded many relevant international apps. In contrast, Google enabled a broader, cross-regional overview, including apps promoted by NGOs, reviewed by media, or mentioned in safety-related contexts. It also allowed access to apps that are no longer listed in app stores but are still publicly available or documented in research and policy discussions. While we acknowledge that this search strategy may limit reproducibility, it provided a more inclusive and realistic view of the global app landscape.

Given that this study is based in Slovenia, relying solely on local app store results would exclude relevant international apps. In contrast, Google enabled a broader, cross-regional search that captured apps available globally, including those promoted on NGO websites, covered by international media, or reviewed in public safety contexts. Furthermore, Google provided access to apps that are no longer listed on official stores but are still available via direct download or have been discussed in research and policy reports. We acknowledge that this approach limits reproducibility to some extent; however, it enables a more inclusive and realistic overview of the mobile app ecosystem as experienced by global users.

For inclusion in our final analysis, apps had to meet the following criteria: (1) apps that explicitly target the prevention or intervention of sexual violence, and (2) be applicable or usable in nightlife settings. We excluded apps that (1) addressed general violence or unrelated safety concerns and (2) were listed by Bivens and Hasinoff but could not be found through our online search, either due to discontinuation or unavailability. These criteria ensured that our analysis focused specifically on mobile apps relevant to nightlife-related risks and sexual violence, thus aligning with the scope and aims of our study.

5. Results

5.1. Results from Systematic Literature Review

The systematic literature review, which utilized four databases, namely IEEE Xplore, Web of Science, Scopus, and Wiley Online Library, yielded 93 articles. Of these, 24 duplicates were removed, and the remaining 69 records were screened based on the title and abstract. Consequently, 57 articles were excluded for not meeting the chosen inclusion criteria. After reviewing the complete text of the remaining 12 articles, six were excluded because they did not analyze mobile apps designed to prevent or intervene in sexual violence incidents. Ultimately, we included only six articles that fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The process mentioned above is illustrated in Figure 1, using the PRISMA 2020 flow diagram template [66].

In

Table 1. Summaries of articles on mobile apps for sexual violence prevention.

Author(s) and Year	App Name/Study Focus	App Description and Objectives	Target Demographic and Context	Technical Features	Prevention Approach	Study Limitations	Use in Nightlife Contexts
Vinarao et al. (2019) [67]	Athena-mobile app(Our Lady of Fatima University Antipolo City, Philippines)	This app helps authorities track criminals using SMS notifications, GPS tracking, and direct emergency call features. It aims to prevent crimes before they occur inside the province.	Women and teenagers, particularly those commuting in unsafe or uncomfortable locations in Rizal Province, Philippines.	SMS alert to police and family-custom alerts/safety planning, emergency call, video and image capturing, GPS tracking in time of distress.	Secondary, Tertiary	Implementation is limited to Rizal Province; it requires an active mobile network load but does not yet account for broader geographic or socio-economic variations.	The app was tested with students and working women attending evening classes; it has an indirect application to nightlife contexts but was not explicitly designed for it.
Potter et al. (2021) [68]	uSafeUS-mobile app(University of New Hampshire Prevention Innovations Research Center, New Hampshire, USA)	This mobile app provides comprehensive sexual violence prevention and response tools—primary, secondary, and tertiary—integrated into one platform for college students.	College students, special attention to student campuses (United States of America).	Education/Awareness Content (Helpful Answers), ‘Time to Leave’ (diversion call/text), ‘Expect Me’ (GPS tracking), ‘Angel Drink’ (discreet help request), ‘Sound the Alarm’ and flashing light, plus campus-specific tertiary resources via ‘Find Help’ and ‘What Next’, supported by a customizable administrator dashboard.	Primary, Secondary, Tertiary	No longitudinal or efficacy studies to date; low adoption rates among certain groups, like older or commuter students; limited to campus apps.	Relevance to nightlife via features like Angel Drink and Expect Me, but not specifically designed or evaluated for nightlife settings.
Potter et al. (2020) [69]	uSafeUS-mobile app	This app provides prevention tools and resources to assist college students in situations of sexual violence, enabling users to access help, escape risky situations, and support peers.	Students at community colleges in a northeastern U.S. state have a diverse student population.	A mobile and web app with features like diversion calls/texts (to exit risky situations), Education/Awareness Content, GPS tracking, discreet help requests, sound alarm and flashing light, campus-specific support information, and a customizable administrator dashboard.	Primary, Secondary, Tertiary	Low response rate (12.8%); limited downloads; cross-sectional data only; results not generalizable beyond the studied institutions; missing long-term evaluation.	Indirectly applicable through prevention tools, but not specifically designed or evaluated for nightlife settings.
Agarwal et al. (2023) [70]	SAKHI-mobile app (Department of CSE Thapar Institute of Engg. & Tech. Patiala, Punjab, India)	This app is designed to help women send SOS alerts to police and emergency contacts, share GPS locations, and video record incidents to serve as evidence and assist in rapid intervention.	Women in India.	SOS triggers via volume button, automatic GPS location sharing, 10-s video recording, Firebase database storage, and PIN-locked app for secure access.	Secondary, Tertiary	Limited deployment and evaluation context; actual law enforcement integration and real-world testing under crises not deeply explored; assumes mobile network availability and functional device access during emergencies.	Highly relevant due to discreet activation, evidence capture, and location tracking features; applicable to scenarios like walking home at night, commuting alone, or attending public gatherings.
Bivens & Hasinoff (2017) [65]	Meta-analysis of Anti-Rape App Features	This app analyzes 215 anti-rape apps and their 807 features to assess how they reflect or challenge rape myths, and evaluates the intended users, feature types, and ideological underpinnings of app design.	Predominantly potential victims (87% of features), followed by bystanders (12%) and perpetrators (1%); apps intended for the general public, often targeting women in public spaces, particularly in the U.S. and Indian markets.	Alerts, GPS tracking, check-in timers, live audio/video, geofencing, stealth modes, evidence sharing, educational quizzes and information, social media integration, community mapping, and database lookups.	Incident intervention (74% of features) focused on risk avoidance and alerting others; 26% provided education/awareness, emphasizing individual responsibility rather than systemic change.	Some apps reinforce rape myths (e.g., stranger danger, victim responsibility); limited engagement with known perpetrator scenarios; most apps not evidence-based or integrated with long-term prevention programs.	Indirectly applicable through features like location sharing, check-ins, and alerts; however, most features are generic and do not specifically address nightlife scenarios or known-assailant contexts.
Bowen-Forbes et al. (2024) [71]	Scoping Review of Personal Safety Apps for At-Risk Youth	This app assessed features of mobile apps, user experience, and evidence of effectiveness through a scoping review. 4 identified mobile apps focused on sexual/dating violence prevention: Circle of 6(Tech 4 Good LLC, Massachusetts, USA), myPlan(Johns Hopkins University School of Nursing, Maryland, USA), uSafeUS, and Liad@s(Universitat de Valencia, Spain).	At-risk children and youth (international)	Panic button, diversion call/text, GPS/self-tracking, emergency contact features, gamification, personalized action plans, resource locators, decision aids, incident reporting, educational content.	Varies by app–mostly Secondary and Educational.	Need more youth-specific app evaluation and development; limited geographic diversity; short app engagement periods; small or homogeneous participant samples; and lack of long-term evaluation data.	Indirect; several app features (e.g., emergency alerts, location sharing, diversion calls) are relevant for nighttime or public setting safety, though most apps were not explicitly designed for nightlife use.

, we present a comprehensive summary of six articles included in the systematic literature review. This table systematically organizes information regarding the authors, publication year, a concise description of each study, research objectives, target demographic, contextual factors, technical features, prevention methodologies, study limitations, and the applicability of the analyzed mobile apps within nightlife settings, where relevant. By categorizing these elements systematically, we aim to elucidate the diverse approaches and functionalities of mobile apps designed to respond to or prevent sexual violence, as documented in the literature. This analysis establishes a foundation for further inquiry and investigation in this critical research domain.

The six articles examined focus on mobile apps designed for the prevention and intervention of sexual violence, employing various methodologies, including content analysis, agile development, participatory design, and systematic review. These interdisciplinary approaches include studies published between 2017 and 2024, primarily targeting women and students in specific geographic contexts, including the United States, the Philippines, and India. Common app features include GPS tracking, SOS alerts, location sharing, and the ability to document incidents through audio or video.

Vinarao et al. [67] and Agarwal et al. [70] primarily concentrate on app development, highlighting safety features like GPS tracking and SOS alerts. While their contributions are valuable from a technical standpoint, they lack field testing or user feedback, which limits assessments of real-world effectiveness. Conversely, Potter et al. [68,69] provide empirical user evaluations along with the development of a mobile app (uSafeUS). Among the reviewed articles, the study by Potter et al. [68] demonstrates the highest empirical rigor, utilizing a mixed-methods, user-centered design to develop and iteratively test the uSafeUS app with input from stakeholders and end users. Bowen-Forbes et al. [71] and Bivens and Hasinoff [65] present app reviews and critical theoretical insights.

Overall, most apps emphasize reactive measures and safety alerts, with the limited incorporation of broader structural or educational strategies. This highlights the need for more holistic, context-sensitive, and empirically supported approaches to digital sexual violence prevention. Significant limitations are evident across the analyzed articles, including a lack of empirical validation, a focus on narrow target populations, region-specific studies, and insufficient attention to multi-stakeholder usability. These findings underscore the need for more comprehensive, inclusive, and empirically validated app-based approaches to preventing sexual violence. While nightlife environments are not the primary focus, the analyzed mobile apps contain relevant features for such contexts.

The mobile apps reviewed in the selected studies can be broadly classified according to the public health model of prevention. The app discussed by Potter et al. [68,69], uSafeUS, exemplifies an integrated approach that encompasses primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention by providing educational tools, discreet intervention features, and post-incident resources for survivors. In contrast, the apps developed by Vinarao et al. [67] and Agarwal et al. [70] mainly focus on secondary prevention, aiming to interrupt or deter incidents in real time through panic buttons, location tracking, and emergency alerts. Meanwhile, Bivens and Hasinoff [65] critique the assumptions underlying many app designs, especially those aimed at secondary prevention, and warn against reinforcing gendered fears or rape myths without addressing structural change. Overall, most apps are geared toward secondary prevention, with the limited use of strategies that target root causes or provide comprehensive support to survivors.

5.2. Results from Online Overview of Mobile Apps for the Prevention and Intervention of Sexual Violence

Of the 215 mobile apps listed by Bivens and Hasinoff [65], 117 were excluded because they could not be found through a Google search. An additional 80 apps were excluded from the analysis, as their primary aim was not to intervene or prevent sexual violence related to entertainment or leisure activities. The final analysis involved 18 mobile apps.

Mobile apps designed to address sexual violence often incorporate both preventive and intervention features. Prevention features aim to diminish the risk of sexual violence before it occurs by promoting safety awareness, enabling proactive planning, and influencing behavior, for example, through educational content, safety tips, or peer engagement tools. In contrast, intervention features are intended for use during or immediately after an incident, providing tools for immediate response or assistance, such as panic buttons, emergency contacts, or covert alerts. This distinction is crucial for understanding how apps support users at different stages of risk and aligns with public health models of violence prevention.

The features identified through the analysis of mobile apps designed to address incidents of sexual violence are presented in

Table 2. Features of mobile apps designed for intervention in sexual violence incidents.

Technical Feature	% of Apps	Description	Function	Prevention Approach
GPS Tracking/Location Sharing	55.6%	Send the user’s live location to trusted contacts or emergency services.	Helps responders or contacts find the user in real-time.	Secondary
Panic Button/Emergency Call	38.9%	One-tap buttons activate help alerts or call emergency services.	Allows immediate help-seeking in crises.	Secondary
Anonymous Reporting/Ask for Help	16.7%	Let users report incidents without revealing their identity or drawing attention.	Reduces reporting barriers and enhances user safety in sensitive situations.	Tertiary
Audio Recording/Broadcasting	22.2%	Records or streams ambient audio during emergencies.	Gathers evidence and alerts others silently during ongoing danger.	Secondary
Fake Home Screen/Covert Mode	5.6%	App functions discretely or runs in the background.	Protecting users in situations where seeking help must remain hidden.	Secondary
Diversion Call	5.6%	Enables a fake or peer-generated phone call to provide a distraction.	Allows the user to exit an uncomfortable or dangerous interaction.	Primary
Loud Alarm	5.6%	Emit a loud sound or whistle to attract attention or scare off an attacker.	Deters threats and alerts nearby people through sound.	Secondary

.

Table 2 outlines the key emergency-related features integrated into safety apps. Leading the list are GPS tracking and location sharing, which account for 55.6% of the technological offerings, underscoring the importance of spatial surveillance and prompt response coordination. Panic buttons (38.9%) and audio broadcasting (22.2%) significantly enhance real-time response capabilities. Additionally, covert features like anonymous reporting (16.7%) and fake home screens (5.6%) demonstrate a thoughtful focus on user privacy and the complexities of various situations. However, certain functionalities, such as diversion calls and loud alarms, are notably underused (5.6%), despite their potential value in high-risk scenarios. This disparity in feature prioritization suggests an imbalance, possibly shaped by the feasibility of technology or insights into user demand that have yet to be empirically validated.

Features like GPS tracking, panic buttons, audio recording, covert modes, and loud alarms primarily focus on secondary prevention, which aims to stop or reduce an incident as it occurs and facilitates quick intervention. While less common, features such as the diversion call support primary prevention by helping users avoid dangerous situations before they escalate. In contrast, anonymous reporting or “ask for help” functions represent tertiary prevention, offering victims a way to disclose after an incident and access support services. This classification indicates that most app features are reactive, focusing on crisis management rather than proactive education or long-term survivor support, emphasizing the ongoing need for more comprehensive, multi-level prevention strategies in app design.

Table 3. Features of mobile apps designed for prevention or education about sexual violence.

Technical Feature	% of Apps	Description	Function	Prevention Approach
Education/Awareness Content	72.2%	Provides info, videos, and training on violence prevention and rights.	Informs and empowers users to prevent violence and recognize red flags.	Primary
Hotline/Helpline Access	50.0%	One-tap access to emergency or counseling hotlines.	Provides instant connection to professionals for help and crisis intervention.	Tertiary
Peer/Bystander Engagement	38.9%	Involves friends or peer networks to watch over and intervene.	Promotes community responsibility and early peer-based responses to risk.	Primary
Check-in Systems/Timed Alerts	22.2%	Users schedule safety check-ins with a timer that alerts if not canceled.	Detects potential danger when a user stops responding, prompting timely intervention.	Secondary
Custom Alerts/Safety Planning	33.3%	Users pre-set emergency messages and contact groups.	Speeds up emergency communication with personalized, fast-acting alert systems.	Primary
Campus-specific Resources & Geo-fencing	38.9%	Provides localized safety features and resource lists depending on the user’s location or campus.	Improves relevance and speed of support by adapting to the user’s context.	Primary
Survivor Support Tools	16.7%	Post-incident tools, like reporting guides or recovery info.	Supports victims after an incident with guidance, healing, and legal help.	Tertiary
Legal Information/Reporting Rights	33.3%	Includes information about reporting options, consent laws, and legal rights.	Empowers users to make informed decisions about formal responses to violence.	Tertiary
Medical care, Mental Health, and Emotional Support	22.2%	Provides emotional care, trauma response tips, or mindfulness tools.	Supports recovery and emotional resilience for survivors or users in distress.	Tertiary
Photo Sharing for Risk Context	11.1%	Allows users to share images of locations or people they’re meeting.	Increase situational awareness for trusted contacts monitoring the user’s safety.	Secondary
Social Network Integration	22.2%	Let users share alerts or locations through Facebook or other social networks.	Increases the reach of emergency signals or prevention campaigns.	Secondary
Mapping of Incidents	5.6%	Maps user-submitted reports of street harassment and public safety issues.	Raises public awareness and informs users of unsafe areas.	Secondary
Statistical Information/Blogs	16.7%	Provides statistics, stories, prevention podcasts, and community knowledge.	Educates users and practitioners using data and narrative tools.	Primary

displays the identified features of mobile apps created for sexual violence prevention or education.

Table 3 illustrates a pronounced focus on user education and post-incident support across most apps. A significant majority include awareness content (72.2%) and access to helplines (50.0%), highlighting the dual objectives of prevention and crisis management. Additionally, features promoting peer involvement (38.9%) and campus-specific geo-fencing (38.9%) foster community vigilance. In comparison, tools for survivor support (16.7%) and medical/mental health resources (22.2%) aim to address the aftermath of violence comprehensively. Despite these strengths, the availability of tools for legal education, emotional regulation, and participatory mapping remains inconsistent, indicating a fragmented care ecosystem. Furthermore, although educational materials are abundant, few apps incorporate evidence-based curricula or connect with institutional safety frameworks.

The prevention and education feature set demonstrates a broader and more comprehensive approach to preventing digital sexual violence. Several features—including education modules, bystander engagement, and custom safety planning—focus on primary prevention, aiming to change behaviors and empower users before violence occurs. Other features, such as check-in systems, incident mapping, and social network integration, serve as secondary prevention tools, enhancing users’ situational awareness and enabling them to respond in real time. Tertiary prevention is supported through features such as hotline access, legal information, and survivor support, all of which aid in recovery and informed decision-making after an incident. This holistic design approach differs from earlier app versions, which primarily relied on reactive safety measures, and aligns more closely with multi-level, trauma-informed prevention models. However, many of these features remain under-implemented or insufficiently tested in real-world nightlife settings, highlighting a significant opportunity for innovation and validation.

6. Discussion

Our findings demonstrate that although numerous mobile apps address sexual violence prevention and response, significant theoretical and practical gaps persist in their development, design, and deployment. We found six academic articles and 18 mobile apps focused on preventing or intervening in sexual violence. Mobile apps offer multiple features aimed at preventing or intervening in sexual violence. However, despite this variety, none of the existing apps provide a comprehensive, stakeholder-inclusive solution tailored specifically to nightlife environments.

Firstly, while existing mobile apps offer a broad spectrum of features for individual safety—such as SOS alerts, location tracking, and emergency communication—these tools are fragmented across different platforms and lack integration into a unified system usable by patrons, venue personnel, municipalities, and law enforcement agencies. The effective prevention of sexual violence in nightlife areas requires a proactive and coordinated approach, involving all key stakeholders—from nightlife organizers and staff to public safety institutions and local government [26].

Secondly, our analysis revealed that no mobile application was explicitly designed for nightlife venues, a significant omission given the high-risk nature of these spaces. Although some app features may be applicable in nightlife contexts, they are often generic and not optimized for the specific challenges of these environments.

Thirdly, mobile apps represent an underutilized tool for documenting and tracking sexual violence in nightlife settings. The majority of incidents remain unreported [47], leading to an underestimation in official statistics [72]. Kavanaugh [36] notes that legal definitions often fail to capture the full spectrum of behaviors that constitute sexual violence in nightlife environments, thereby excluding critical victim experiences. This highlights the need for technological solutions that can support real-time documentation and contribute to more accurate and actionable data.

The fourth gap arises from the fact that mobile apps predominantly target women and students, reinforcing the notion that only potential victims bear responsibility for prevention. In rare instances, mobile apps are designed with administrative users in mind, such as campus officials [68,69]. However, none of the reviewed tools were developed for nightlife venue staff, managers, or local government authorities, despite their critical roles in enabling prevention infrastructure. This narrow user focus not only limits the app’s utility but also perpetuates gendered prevention narratives [20].

A more holistic understanding of safety is crucial when designing mobile apps. The concept of security includes not just physical protection (e.g., from assault) and digital safeguards (e.g., data encryption), but also subjective perceptions of safety, such as feeling secure, respected, and free from judgment. In addition to the identified practical and theoretical gaps, concerns around privacy, data protection, ethical risks, and revictimization present significant obstacles. Mobile apps often lack clear data protection policies, exposing users to the misuse of personal information [73,74]. Mobile apps frequently collect, store, and share user data, often without users fully understanding how their information is used [73]. Gunnoo et al. [75] link dating app usage with an increased risk of technology-facilitated sexual violence, highlighting the potential for long-term psychological consequences. Furthermore, apps should not be seen as standalone solutions; they must be integrated with real-world services and support systems [76]. Ethical app development strikes a balance between digital empowerment and safety, informed consent, and cultural sensitivity. Users often do not fully grasp the risks associated with digital interactions or the sharing of personal information, which requires a comprehensive understanding of technology’s functions and risks [77].

The identified theoretical gaps can be better contextualized through the lens of the World Health Organization’s ecological model [34]. Most mobile safety apps target the individual level, focusing on personal safety features such as SOS buttons and GPS tracking. However, they often neglect the relationship level, failing to incorporate features that engage peers or promote bystander accountability. At the community level, limited collaboration with nightlife venues and local services weakens the apps’ integration into broader safety strategies. At the societal level, apps largely fail to challenge harmful gender norms or address broader structural barriers, such as inadequate legislation or institutional accountability. This imbalance suggests a need for future digital interventions to align more closely with multilevel public health frameworks that recognize the complex, interconnected drivers of sexual violence.

In response to these limitations, we propose a stakeholder-inclusive mobile application designed to support patrons, nightlife staff, local authorities, and, where applicable, law enforcement. Based on our comprehensive literature review and subsequent analysis of existing mobile apps, we propose a preliminary design for a mobile app that promotes nightlife free from sexual violence. App design must incorporate multilevel functionalities, ranging from user education and social norm transformation (primary prevention) to real-time intervention and reporting tools (secondary prevention), as well as survivor support services (tertiary prevention). Furthermore, integration with venue-based policies, municipal safety programs, and data-sharing with public health actors would enhance effectiveness at the community level. Interventions that incorporate this multilevel logic would better align with established public health prevention frameworks and contribute to more sustainable reductions in sexual violence.

Beyond the features previously outlined, including GPS tracking, emergency alerts, emergency contacts, and safety planning, we propose the incorporation of several additional functionalities within the mobile application: (1) a navigation map tailored to nightlife users; (2) a comprehensive program of events, enabling individuals to plan their evening outings effectively; (3) the identification of hotspots, informed by reported incidents; (4) a section titled “Good to Know,” offering essential contact numbers (police, healthcare), operational hours, and taxi and bus schedules to facilitate safe return journeys from nightlife venues; (5) a curated list of recommended establishments, featuring pubs and clubs with a low rate of reported incidents, which will be subject to regular updates; (6) a preventive measures segment that provides tips for safe recreational activities; (7) a rating system for the venues; and (8) a notifications tab, which will generate alerts that can also be reviewed. This proposed mobile app design aims to foster a more secure nightlife experience through informed decision-making and proactive safety measures. Besides, the app’s design would emphasize accessibility, intersectionality, and user autonomy. These features (like geolocated safety alerts, venue evaluations, access to resources, incident mapping, and peer-based reporting) aim to promote community trust, real-time responsiveness, and data-informed urban safety planning. This proposed design is not only preventive but also participatory, emphasizing contextual relevance, accessibility, and user autonomy.

To avoid reinforcing harmful dynamics of surveillance and control, mobile apps must be intentionally designed to support user agency. Ghaziani [78] illustrates how queer nightlife spaces offer lessons in mutual care, resistance to control, and emotional safety. Inspired by this, we propose an app design that promotes peer-based alert systems, opt-in participation, and customizable user profiles that reflect the intersectional needs of diverse user groups, not the surveillance of nightlife patrons. This is particularly important for communities—like queer, racialized, or migrant groups—who often experience policing and monitoring not as protection, but as exclusion.

Moreover, by integrating real-time incident tracking with feedback loops, the app can support data-driven prevention strategies. Users may receive app notifications to evaluate nightlife venues based on certain criteria, including experiences of sexual violence and the presence of drugs or suspicious activities. This data helps identify hotspots on a map using color coding to indicate incident frequency and timing, which can assist nightlife venue management, city planners, and local authorities in improving safety measures. By analyzing patterns, resources such as security personnel can be better allocated, and targeted interventions can be implemented to enhance safety in entertainment areas. Additionally, mobile apps for real-time reporting can further support prevention and response efforts. This aligns with the findings of Ventorim et al. [79], who highlight that crime patterns are affected by urban conditions, suggesting that targeted interventions and identifying hotspots can improve resource allocation and safety measures. In addition to these spatial strategies, mobile apps providing real-time reporting or safety alerts can strengthen prevention and response efforts.

Furthermore, the venue rating in the mobile app could be derived from reviews submitted by previous patrons. By utilizing the GPS functionality near the bar, individuals equipped with the mobile app could receive alerts containing warnings or safety advice, such as reminders to enjoy responsibly, safeguard their beverages, or be aware of the potential for sexual violence. Furthermore, the proposed mobile app design could help the municipality enhance nightlife safety. It can also benefit nightlife venue management by incentivizing quality improvements in bar and club services through public recognition and accountability. Establishing a quality rating system—such as awarding a prize to venues that actively implement sexual violence prevention measures—can promote healthy competition and raise industry standards. In Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, a similar awarding system already exists, aimed at increasing the visibility, demand, and sales of high-quality services and products in the catering and trade sectors. This initiative seeks to enhance the quality of tourist services in the city and boost visitor numbers [80]. It is essential to acknowledge that trolling has emerged on social media platforms, manifesting through malicious and ‘fake’ reviews aimed at damaging businesses’ reputations and provocative posts in discussion forums. A similar situation could be anticipated regarding the proposed mobile app. Web 2.0 technologies and innovations, such as fraud detection systems, can help mitigate these issues [81]. When designing features such as nightlife venue reviews, we should consider this; its design should prevent answers that could harm competition or lead to dissatisfaction with a particular establishment. Apps should request permissions before accessing sensitive resources or performing sensitive operations [82].

The mobile app may also enable users to confirm their presence at the location upon receiving the notification, thereby joining a network of bystanders. Logging into a specific area implies that if any participating user reports an incident through the application, a notification will be dispatched to others in the vicinity (e.g., “Warning: someone at this site has been harassed”). Rader’s [20] concept of gendered fear and crime myths underscores the importance of shifting prevention narratives away from individual blame and toward structural solutions. We propose that the mobile app explicitly avoids fear-based messaging and instead promotes positive, evidence-based safety engagement.

For the individual reporting the incident (victim), marking the occurrence will prompt the application to generate a message containing directives for subsequent actions (such as directions to the nearest health center or police station). Users can obtain navigational assistance by pressing a button within the app or opt to initiate an emergency call. Nevertheless, users will have the option to cancel any subsequent procedures by simply clicking “OK.” In line with the findings of Sumra et al. [83], we discovered that none of the apps employed artificial intelligence to assist potential victims. We concur with the authors, as implementing artificial intelligence could enhance the apps’ ability to analyze life situations and generate accurate alerts. Moreover, current emergency alerts necessitate activation by the potential victim when available, without any automation involved. As proposed by Sumra et al. [83], automation is necessary to enhance the usability of mobile apps.

Mobile apps can serve as powerful tools that provide emergency assistance, information, and a means for survivors of sexual violence to report incidents and gather evidence against the perpetrators [84]. In our research, we found that mobile apps designed for the prevention and intervention of sexual violence offer several advantages. They furnish immediate and discreet access to support and information, particularly significant in high-risk or stigmatized circumstances. Features like emergency alerts, geolocation, and personal safety planning empower users to respond swiftly and effectively in hazardous situations. Furthermore, specific apps offer video and audio recording functionalities, facilitating the gathering of evidence. Additionally, these apps serve an educational purpose, informing users about sexual violence and promoting safe engagement in nightlife activities. Moreover, mobile apps include tools for documenting incidents, accessing helplines, and securing medical and mental health assistance. Some apps also permit anonymous reporting, thereby contributing valuable data for research and the formulation of policy frameworks.

While utilizing such mobile apps provides various advantages, it simultaneously introduces several challenges that warrant recognition. The primary concern revolves around data protection. Generally, mobile apps gather user data through surveillance, such as tracking via cookies or geolocation services. Even if the data is anonymized, personal information regarding the individual using the application, such as their location, may still be accessible online [84]. Furthermore, the issue with such apps lies in their dependence on the phone’s capabilities and limitations, including factors such as battery life, network availability, and overall connectivity. Consequently, they can be unreliable in practical, real-world situations [85]. Among the disadvantages of the mobile app are also the costs associated with development and updates [86]. We can agree with Henne et al. [84] that using apps will not resolve many persistent issues related to typical responses to sexual violence. Conversely, as pointed out by Bivens and Hasinoff [65], such portrayals can reinforce harmful rape myths, particularly the erroneous belief that sexual assault is primarily perpetrated by strangers. Additionally, they perpetuate the notion that potential victims bear the responsibility to prevent sexual violence through personal vigilance and risk mitigation strategies. In reality, it is more common for victims and offenders to have prior acquaintance. Rader [20] sheds light on entrenched gender safety myths, such as the “stranger danger myth,” which portrays criminals as typically unknown entities (often men); the “white woman crime victim myth,” which suggests that white women are the primary targets of crime; and the “victim-centered crime prevention myth,” which assumes that potential victims can prevent their victimization through personal precautions. These misconceptions influence how women learn to experience fear and convey it to others, thus perpetuating gendered crime myths through generations and cementing them in society. Furthermore, it emphasizes that fear of victimization is a socially constructed concept, often influenced by prevailing myths and narratives. Understanding these factors is crucial for creating mobile app interventions for nightlife environments that effectively prevent the inadvertent reinforcement of existing misunderstandings or stigmas. Moreover, Henne et al. [84] noted that digital tools can facilitate violence. Abusive partners may utilize these technologies for cyberstalking, allowing them ongoing access to their victims. Additionally, apps intended to help survivors report violence raise comparable concerns, as they do not tackle the power dynamics that often result in authorities dismissing survivors’ accounts of abuse.

7. Conclusions

Modern information technology, when incorporated into the concept of smart cities, has significant potential to enhance the quality of life, the economy, and the environment. Security remains a common concern for many smart city projects and technologies [3]. However, the line between providing safety and monitoring is thin; therefore, a cautious approach to modern smart city technologies and services is necessary [63].

Nightlife engagement represents a vital leisure activity and the most common means of socialization, which the threat of sexual violence victimization can deter [6,7,14]. The criminogenic potential of nightlife areas arises from, among other factors, the presence of alcohol and drugs in these areas, which contributes to the emergence of sexual violence [87]. Furthermore, victims are often reluctant to discuss these incidents, resulting in a significant void of unreported crimes [47]. Sexual violence, particularly harassment, poses a significant issue in nightlife entertainment spots but often remains overlooked in discussions about problems in nightlife engagement. This oversight is due to the widely accepted culture of tolerance for such behaviors in nightlife venues [87].

Sexual violence in nightlife entertainment venues is a complex issue that cannot be addressed solely by mobile apps. Further research and additional preventive measures will be necessary to address the root causes of the problem. The research presented makes a significant contribution by identifying key gaps in existing mobile apps for the prevention and intervention of sexual violence. Moreover, we propose essential mobile app features that are suitable for nightlife environments and a stakeholder-inclusive app solution that has not been previously explored. It applies the World Health Organization’s ecological model to reveal the lack of multilevel prevention strategies and emphasizes the need for ethically designed, context-sensitive tools. The proposed app framework addresses individual, community, and societal levels, with features tailored to diverse user needs, thus bridging theoretical insights with practical design recommendations. The theoretical implications of the presented paper address the research gap in preventing sexual violence in nightlife venues, emphasizing mobile apps for this purpose. The limited findings from the systematic literature review demonstrate that the topic, as discussed in this article, has not been previously published. The review included only six articles that analyzed apps for preventing sexual violence, indicating a lack of detailed analysis in the existing literature. That confirms the originality of the topic and highlights that the prevention of sexual violence in nightlife environments is under-researched and underrepresented. Additionally, the online survey did not yield any apps that would comprehensively address sexual violence in nightlife venues. The practical implications of the paper primarily target academia and practitioners involved in sexual violence prevention. The proposed app would benefit everyone engaged in nightlife, especially patrons, by providing information about nightlife, preventive tips, and safe nightlife engagement areas. Furthermore, the mobile app would support the municipality by ensuring higher nightlife safety, enabling nightlife managers to provide better-quality services in pubs and clubs, and indirectly aiding the police in more efficiently planning preventive activities.

The presented paper acknowledges several limitations. Firstly, while we have discussed the features of mobile apps, we have not yet designed or developed a solution. Additionally, during the preparation of this article, we engaged in informal consultations with relevant stakeholders. A more structured open dialogue with all pertinent stakeholders is necessary to effectively evaluate the usability of the mobile app features aimed at preventing and addressing sexual violence in nightlife venues. Secondly, our systematic literature review was limited to only four academic databases. Lastly, we did not include all existing mobile apps available online; instead, we adhered to the pre-existing list provided by Bivens and Hasinoff [65] and searched for listed apps using Google search. As a result, there is a possibility that we may have overlooked a feature that could enhance the comprehensive mobile app. Additionally, there is a limitation arising from the precise reproducibility of this segment of the conducted research, as the investigation in another country may yield different results. These limitations present opportunities for further research. While current mobile apps offer various safety features, the literature review reveals a gap in empirical studies assessing their effectiveness in real-world nightlife settings, suggesting a need for more rigorous, longitudinal research. During the development of the mobile app, it is essential to gather insights from a broader range of stakeholders. In addition to feedback from law enforcement and academic professionals, representatives from municipalities, municipal police, experienced app developers, and nightlife patrons should be included. This diverse group can offer many perspectives that will significantly enhance the app’s functionality and user experience. Regarding the mobile app’s usability, it would be crucial to test it with end users—nightlife patrons and practitioners. Only in this way can we create a mobile app that is both safe, reliable, and user-friendly.