Review of Composite Marine Risers for Deep-Water Applications: Design, Development and Mechanics
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Design and Manufacture
2.1. Advances in Composite Risers
2.2. Qualification of Composite Risers
2.3. Material Characterisation and Metal–Composite Interface (MCI)
2.4. Loading Conditions
2.5. Composite Risers’ Layers
2.6. Manufacturing Process
2.7. End-Fitting
3. Mechanical Behaviour
3.1. Strength Behaviour
3.2. Global Performance
3.3. Vortex-Induced Vibration (VIV)
3.4. Dynamic Behaviour
3.5. Experimental Tests
3.6. Numerical Analysis
3.7. Fatigue Behaviour
3.8. Comparative Case Study
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
2D | two-dimensional |
3D | three-dimensional |
6DoF | six degrees of freedom |
ABS | American Bureau of Shipping |
API | American Petroleum Institute |
ATP | advanced technology program |
BOEM | Bureau of Ocean Energy Management |
BOP | blow-out preventer |
CALM | catenary anchor leg mooring |
CDR | composite drilling riser |
CFD | computational fluid dynamics |
CFRP | carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer |
CPR | composite production riser |
CT | computed tomography |
D | drilling riser |
D&P | drilling and production |
DNV | Det Norske Veritas |
FAT | factory acceptance test |
FCP | fatigue crack propagation |
FEA | finite element analysis |
FEM | finite element model |
FOS | floating offshore structure |
FPSO | floating production storage and offloading |
FPS | floating production storage |
FRP | fibre-reinforced polymer |
HNBR | hydrogenated nitrile butadiene rubber |
HPHT | high pressure |
ID | inner diameter |
ISO | International Organization for Standardization |
JIP | joint industry program |
LRA | lower-riser assembly |
MBR | minimum bend radius |
MCI | metal–composite interface |
MWL | mean water level |
NASA | National Aeronautics and Space Administration |
NIST | National Institute of Standards and Technology |
OD | outer diameter |
OTC | Offshore Technology Conference |
P | production riser |
PCSemi | paired-column semisubmersible |
PA | polyamide |
PE | polyethylene |
PEEK | polyether ether ketone |
PP | polypropylene |
PSA | Petroleum Safety Authority |
PSP | plastic composite–steel pipe |
PVDF | polyvinylidene difluoride |
RAO | response amplitude operator |
RPSEA | Research Partnership to Secure Energy for America |
SCR | steel catenary riser |
SEM | scanning electron microscope |
SLHR | single-leg hybrid riser |
SON | Standards Organisation of Nigeria |
SPAR | single-point anchor reservoir |
SURF | subsea umbilicals, risers and flowlines |
SURP | subsea umbilicals, risers and pipelines |
TC | technical committee |
TCP | thermoplastic composite pipes |
TLP | tension leg platform |
UK | United Kingdom |
USA | United States of America |
URA | upper-riser assembly |
UTL | ultimate tensile load |
VIV | vortex-induced vibration |
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Year | Project Funder/Country | Reference | Riser Type | Materials | Thickness (mm) | ID (m) | Length (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1973 | Ahlstone Marine Riser | [67] | D | Glass fibre/epoxy | -- | -- | -- |
1985–1987 | Joint industry program (JIP) by Institut Francais du Petrole and Aerospatiale du France/France | [68,69] | P | Glass and carbon fibres/epoxy | 9.57 (carbon) 7.28 (glass) 1.1 (inner layer) | 0.2286 | 4 and 15 |
1994–2000 | National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)’s Advanced Technology Program (ATP)/US | [70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77] | D&P | Carbon fibre & E-glass fibers/epoxy | Not specified | 0.496/0.255 | 2.286 |
1995–1999 | JIP—ABB, Vetco Gray and University of Houston. | [78,79,80,81] | D | Carbon fibre/epoxy | Not specified | 0.5 | Not specified |
1996–2001 | JIP—ABB, Vetco Gray, Aker Kvaerner, Conoco, EU Thermie, Chevron, Hydro, Statoil, Shell and Petrobras/US | [82,83,84,85] | D | Carbon fibre/epoxy | Not specified | 0.5 | Not specified |
1999–2000 | JIP-NIST/ATP, Shell & BP-Amoco/US | [86,87] | D&P | Carbon fiber/epoxy | 0.250 | 19 | |
1995–2001 | CompRiser JIP—Heidrun CDR joint by Norske Conoco AS and Kvaerner Oilfield Products/Norway | [88,89,90,91,92] | D | Glass and carbon fibre/epoxy | Not specified | 0.536 | 14.585 |
2003 | JIP-ConocoPhillips, Kvaerner Oilfield Products & ChevronTexaco/Norway | [93,94] | D&P | carbon fiber/epoxy | Not specified | 0.55 | 14.7 |
2007 | Doris Engineering, Freyssinet, Total and Soficar | [95] | P | Carbon fibre/epoxy | -- | -- | -- |
2006–2009 | Part of NIST Advanced Technology Program by University of Texas/US | [96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104] | D | Glass and carbon fibre/epoxy | 30.5 | 0.540 | 4.57 |
2008–2011 | Research Partnership to Secure Energy for America (RPSEA)/US | [105,106,107,108,109,110] | D&P | Glass and carbon fibre plus epoxy | 25.4 (liner) 53.3 (composite) | 0.508 | 10 |
2009 | JIP—Airborne Composite Tubulars, MCS Advanced Subsea Engineering & OTM Consulting | [111,112,113,114,115] | D&P | Glass & carbon fiber/epoxy | Not specified | Not specified | Not specified |
2011-date | Magma Global of Technip FMC/UK | [116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126] | D&P | Carbon fibre/epoxy | 7–39 | 0.047–0.6 | Up to 27.4 |
2011-date | Airborne Oil and Gas (now Strohm)/Netherlands | [127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136] | D&P | Glass and carbon fibre/epoxy | Varies | Varies | Varies |
2011-date | University of New South Wales/Australia | [9,10,11,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148] | P | TCP, carbon fiber/epoxy & PEEK | Varies | Varies | Varies |
2015-date | Lancaster University/UK | [12,13,14,15,149,150,151,152,153,154,155] | P | carbon fiber/epoxy & PEEK | Varies | Varies | Varies |
2017-date | University of Southampton/UK | [156,157,158,159,160,161,162] | P | carbon fiber/epoxy | Varies | Varies | Varies |
2013-date | National University of Singapore/Singapore | [159,160,161,162,163,164,165] | P | carbon fiber/epoxy | Varies | Varies | Varies |
F-Load or Functional Load | E-Load or Environmental Load | P-Load or Pressure Load | A-Load or Accidental Load |
---|---|---|---|
Weight of riser | Floater motions due to currents, waves and wind | Internal fluid pressure (dynamic): global load effects can be generated by both slugs and pressure surges on compliant configurations) | Risk analysis related to support systems, such as loss of mooring line and loss of riser. |
Weight of the internal fluid | Vessel motions | Internal fluid pressure (static) | A loosened tensioner in the system |
Applied tensions on top-tensioned risers (TTR) | Waves | Internal fluid pressure (hydrostatic) | Fire hazards, explosions and riser collisions. |
Installation-induced residual loads or prestressing | Current | External hydrostatic pressure | Flow-induced impact between risers |
The preloads of connectors | Due to changes in water density, internal waves and other phenomena. | Water levels | Impacts from dropped objects and anchors |
Guidance loads and applied displacements, plus support for floater’s active positioning system | Dynamic load effects, such as slug flow generated from the fluid pressure (P-Loads) | Naturally occurring environmental issues, such as earthquakes, tsunami, icebergs and hurricanes | |
Construction loads and loads caused by tools | Icey locations having ice formations or tendency to develop, be slippery or drifts | Failure of lower marine riser package (LMRP) | |
Soil pressure on buried risers | Seismic effects such as earthquakes (in seismically active regions) | Pressure surge and overpressure of well tubing | |
Differential settlements | Mean offset including current forces, wind and steady wave drifts | Loss of pressure safety system | |
Loads from drilling operations | Wave frequency (WF) motion | Seismic effects such as earthquakes (in seismically active regions) | |
Thermal loads | Low-frequency (LF) motion | Load from anchor, hooks and support systems (hook/snag load) | |
Inertia | Partial loss of station-keeping capability | ||
Internally run tools | Internal pressure exceeded | ||
Buoyancy of riser (including absorbed water), attachments, fluid contents, anodes, marine growths, buoyancy modules, tubing and coatings. | Risk analysis related to monitoring failure, such as dynamic positioning system (DPS), loss of buoyancy and loss of heave compensating system |
Type of Model | Problems to Be Solved | Loads to Check for |
---|---|---|
Composite risers | Global analysis and local analyses | Load distribution on riser ends |
Compound infinite anisotropic cylinder | Stress and strength analysis, selection of layer thicknesses and technological parameters | Dead weight, internal pressure, external pressure, residual stresses from force winding and thermal shrinkages |
Compound semi-infinite cylinder | Stress concentration and length of boundary effect zone | Load distribution effect on riser ends |
Cylindrical sections of different lay-ups on axial coordinate | Selection of reinforcement scheme at different depths of sections | Load variation along axial coordinate |
Cylindrical section with lay-up varying in wall thickness | Optimisation of reinforcement scheme of riser sections | Nonuniformity of stress fields on wall thickness |
Extensible weighted thread | Estimation of axial strength, effect of extensibility of riser axis on its deflection | Dead weight and flow-past |
Flexible rod in linear statement | Calculation of riser deflection and stresses | Flow-past, reactive forces and moments |
Flexible rod in nonlinear statement | Stresses, deflection, required top tension at longitudinal-transverse bending and buckling | Dead weight, flow-past, top end tension, reactive forces and moments |
Laminated cylindrical tube | Displacements and stresses | Bending loads, torsion, tensile loads, external pressure, and internal pressure. |
Multilayered cylindrical shell | Stress, strain and strength analysis | Effect of asymmetric loading (flow-past, concentrated loads) |
Repaired cracks in composite pipes | Fracture using stress intensity factor (SIF) | Load distribution |
Quasilinear 3D anisotropic elastic cylinder | Refined calculation of stresses | Synergetic effect of different loads |
Property | Specific Gravity | Young’s Modulus (GPa) | Poisson Ratio, v | Density (kg/m3) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Composite Riser | 1.68 | (depends) | 0.28 | 1680 |
Steel | 7.8 | 200 | 0.30 | 7850 |
Titanium | 4.43 | 113.8 | 0.342 | 4430 |
Aluminium | 2.78 | 68.9 | 0.33 | 2780 |
PEEK | 1.32 | 5.15 | 0.40 | 1300 |
P75/PEEK | 1.77 | 33 | 0.30 | 1773 |
P75/Epoxy | 1.78 | 31 | 0.29 | 1776 |
Sea Water | 1.0 | 2.15 | 0.5 | 1030 |
AS4-PEEK | 1.56 | 66 | 0.28 | 1561 |
AS4-Epoxy | 1.53 | 49 | 0.32 | 1530 |
Authors | Title | Highlight |
---|---|---|
Gibson A.G. [306] | Composites for Offshore Applications | Compared steel, protruded FRP against steel and wood |
Hopkins P. et al. [196] | Composite Pipe Set to Enable Riser Technology in Deeper Water | Compared both steel and composite riser performances and riser fatigue |
Cheldi T. et al. [4] | Use of spoolable reinforced TCP pipes for oil and water transportation | Spoolable reinforced TCP pipes, material design |
Toh W. et al. [187] | A comprehensive study on composite risers: Material solution, local end fitting design and global response | End-fitting design for composite risers and global design with VIV responses |
Hopkins P. et al. [197] | Composite riser study confirms weight, fatigue benefits compared with steel | Compared the composite risers and steel riser with material attributes |
OGJ [211] | Composite riser technology advances to field applications | Compared the composite risers and steel riser with material attributes |
Pham D.C. et al. [160] | A review on design, manufacture and mechanics of composite risers | Comparative assessment of the literature |
Amaechi C.V. et al. [149] | Composite Risers for Deep Waters Using a Numerical Modelling Approach | Numerically compared composite riser models, compared different liners |
Ward E.G. et al. [101] | A Comparative Risk Analysis of Composite and Steel Production Risers | Comparison assessment, local design, global riser analysis and risk analysis for both steel and composite risers. |
Pham D.C. et al. [159] | Composite riser design and development—a review | Comparative assessment of the literature |
Saleh P. [199] | The benefits if composite materials in deepwater riser applications | Benefits of composites in developing composite risers |
Brown T. [246] | The impact of composites on future deepwater riser configurations | Configurations for composite risers, with fatigue of steel and composite risers |
Lamacchia D. [217], Lamacchia D. et al. [276], | Thermoplastic Composite Pipe (TCP) Offshore Market 101 | Compared MagmaGlobal and Airborne Oil&Gas TCP pipes for composite risers |
Saad et al. [55] | Application of composites to deepwater top tensioned riser systems | Economic aspects of composite risers on SPAR and TLP |
Mintzas A. et al. [134] | An integrated approach to the design of high performance carbon fibre reinforced risers—from micro to macro scale | Combined bend–burst, burst and compressive tests |
Amaechi et al. [153] | Local and Global Design of Composite Risers on Truss SPAR Platform in Deep waters | Comparative assessment of composite risers; local and global design |
Wang et al. [141] | Tailored design of top-tensioned composite risers for deep-water applications using three different approaches | Numerically compared composite riser models, compared 3 different approaches |
Gibson A.G. [80] | The cost effective use of fiber reinforced composites offshore | Compared the composite risers and steel riser with material attributes |
Andersen W.F. et al. [71] | Full-Scale Testing of Prototype Composite Drilling Riser Joints-Interim Report | Full-scale testing on composite riser |
Wang et al. [142] | Global design and analysis of deep sea FRP composite risers under combined environmental loads | Numerically compared composite riser models, global and local design |
Kim W.K. [98] | Composite production riser assessment | Compared steel and composite risers, local and global design, |
Gibson A.G. et al. [82] | Non-metallic pipe systems for use in oil and gas. | Application of composite pipes |
Reference | Highlights and Test Modes | Specimen Type | Program/Test Scale |
---|---|---|---|
Sparks et al. [68] | Attributes of composite risers on concrete TLP, collapse pressure test, fatigue test | Composite riser | Full-scale and small-scale |
Andersen et al. [71] | Burst, and tension tests | Composite drilling riser joint | Full-scale |
Gibson [81] | Flexure, tension, fire, durability, blast, impact test, axisymmetric burst, marine composite application, fatigue test | Fibre-reinforced composite pipes and coupons | Full-scale and Small-scale |
Picard D. et al. [95] | Tensile test, manufacture of TCP pipe | Composite tube | Large-scale |
Ramirez and Engelhardt [96,97] | Collapse pressure test, buckling | Composite tube | Full-scale |
Alexander et al. [105] | Burst, bending cycles, impact/drop tests | Composite tube | Full-scale |
Cederberg et al. [109,110] | Burst, collapse and impact tests | Composite drilling riser | Full-scale |
Mintzas et al. [134] | Tensile test, micro-scale test | Carbon fibre repaired riser | Small-scale |
Chen et al. [186] | Burst, and tension tests | Composite riser end fitting | Small-scale |
Pham et al. [161] | Bending under transverse loads | Composite pipe and coupons | Full-scale |
Sobrinho et al. [224] | Thermal and Mechanical tests | ||
Ye et al. [257,258] | Tensile test, SEM and CT tests | Glass fibre composite/epoxy | Small-scale |
Ellyin et al. [262] | Flexure test, tension test | Composite pipes and coupons | Small-scale |
Grant and Bradley [280] | Flexure test, tension test | Composite pipes and coupons | Small-scale |
Huang et al. [307,308] | Tensile and fatigue tests | Carbon fibre composite pipe and coupons | Large-scale |
Alexander and Ochoa [327] | Burst, tension and 4-point bend tests | Carbon fibre composite repaired steel riser | Full-scale |
Rodriguez and Ochoa [328] | 4-point flexural test, fatigue test | Carbon and glass fibres/epoxy | Small-scale |
Lindsey and Masudi [328,329] | Cyclic test, tension in sea water cases from 25 °C to 75 °C | Graphite epoxy composite | Small-scale |
Soden et al. [330] | Flexure test, tension test | Composite pipes and coupons | Small-scale |
Reference | Numerical Methods | Highlights |
---|---|---|
Bai et al. [248,299] | Numerical model, von Mises failure criteria | TCP Pipe, internal pressure ABAQUS |
Andersen [8] | Minimum potential energy approach; failure criteria; progressive damage | Analysis of transverse cracks in composites |
Rodriguez and Ochoa [328] | Numerical and experimental, spoolable tube bending; material failure mode; 2D shell element | Flexural response of spoolable composite tubular |
Toh et al. [187] | Tensile strength assessment, mode shape from global response | Analysis of 2 composite riser end-fittings—taplock and Magma |
Chen et al. [186] | Tensile strength, prototype design and analysis; composite riser joints | Numerical and test analysis of composite riser end-fitting; mechanical tests, tension and combined tension-bending loading tests of composite riser joints |
Amaechi et al. [149,150,151] | Novel numerical approach in ANSYS ACP to model composite riser; netting theory; for 18 layers of composite riser | Buckling, burst, collapse, tension; under 6 load conditions, presented stress profiles for F.S of different layers in 3 stress directions, presented buckling modes |
Jamal and Karyadi [213] | Collapse test; under pure bending; LR-739 composite cylindrical tube | Material failure using Novozhilov’s nonlinear thin-shell theory |
Corona et al. [233] | Nonlinear analysis using material failure criteria and constitutive modelling | Bending response of long and thin-walled cross-ply composite cylinders |
Wang C. et al. [137,138,139,140,141,142] | Design of composite risers for minimum weight; Numerical method using ANSYS APDL to model composite riser. | Local design and global design of composite riser; design on min. weight, factor of safety results in 3 stress directions; Under combined loadings and global responses |
Elhajjar R. et al. [322] | A hybrid numerical and imaging approach for characterizing defects in composite structures | Structural and elastic failure responses of composites; hybrid approach coupling with a progressive FEA |
Tatting, B. F. et al. [228] | The Brazier effect for finite-length composite cylinders under bending | Numerical nonlinear analysis using semi-membrane constitutive theory for the analyses. |
Brazier L.G. [325] | Analysed the flexural behaviour of thin cylindrical shells and other thin sections | The flexural behaviour of thin cylindrical shells and nonlinear bending analysis |
Reference | Highlights and Test Modes | Method Used | Specimen Type | Program/Test Scale |
---|---|---|---|---|
Thomas (2004) | Fatigue test | S-N approach | Composite riser | Full-scale |
Huybrechts [302] | Fatigue test, fatigue life estimation | S-N approach | Composite tube | Full-scale |
Salama et al. [89,90,91] | Fatigue test | S-N approach | Composite riser | Full-scale |
Chouchaoui and Ochoa [225,226] | Fatigue test | S-N approach | Composite coupons | Small-scale |
Sobrinho et al. [223] | Application-based test | S-N approach | Composite coupons | Small-scale |
Mertiny et al. (2004) | Fatigue test | S-N approach | Composite coupons | Small-scale |
Cederberg [109] | Fatigue test, fatigue life estimation | Strain-life model | Composite riser and steel-reinforced drilling riser | Large-scale |
Kim [98] | Fatigue life estimation | Semi-log S-N approach, Power law S-N approach | Composite riser tube | Large-scale |
Echtermeyer et al. (2002) | Fatigue life estimation | S-N approach | Composite tube | Small-scale |
Liu K. et al. [291] | Fatigue life estimation | S-N approach | Composite tube | --- |
Yu K. et al. [148] | Fatigue life estimation | S-N approach | Composite tube | --- |
Sun S.X. et al. [163] | Fatigue life estimation | S-N approach | Composite tube | --- |
Type of Test | Prediction Result | Measured Result | Failure Location |
---|---|---|---|
Burst pressure test with closed end loads | 14,800 psi | 15,850 psi | Body failure |
Impact with 5000 kg m (36,170 ft-lb) dropped casing | No structural damage | No structural damage | No failure |
Cyclic bending stress range of 850 kN m (627,000 lb-ft), cycles | 140,000 psi | 160,000 psi -180,000 psi | Circ weld in the Titanium (Ti) liner |
Particulars | Steel | Composite | Observations |
---|---|---|---|
Max Hang-Off Load (te) | 94 | 93 | In an SLHR, the flexible jumper to the vessel acts as interface between the vessel and the vertical riser leg, thus keeping the two isolated. Therefore, negligible change in hang-off loads was seen |
Max Hang-Off Bending Moment (kNm) | 261 | 282 | |
Max Stress Utilisation | 0.63 | --- | While stress is the driving criterion for steel, strain is the driving criterion for composites |
Max Safety Factor | --- | 2.76 | MBR is larger than minimum acceptable value |
Max Tension Utilisation | --- | 0.14 | Tension is low in comparison to the allowable tension |
Max Buoyancy Tank Displacement (m) | 247 | 211 | Smaller drag area causes smaller buoyancy tank displacement |
Max Buoyancy Tank Tension (Te) | 451 | 258 | 43% less tension required |
Max Bending Moment at Base of URA (kNm) | 116 | 62 | Approximately 50% lower bending moment from URA and LRA. |
Max Bending Moment at Top of LRA (kNm) | 581 | 270 |
Particulars | Values | Observations |
---|---|---|
Pipe ID | 8 in | This is the maximum recommended, and is driven by the collapse criteria |
Pipe Max OD | 11.9 in | The wall thickness can vary, and thus a smaller pipe OD can be used at shallower depths |
Tension at Top | 257 Te | Similar level to composite at 2000 m water depth. Note pipe size is different |
MBR Safety Factor | 2.84 | Acceptable MBR |
Max Tension Utilisation | 0.17 | Very low utilisation |
Bending Moment At top of LRA | 237.70 | Similar to composite pipe at 2000 m |
Bending Moment At base of URA | 32.20 | Similar to composite pipe at 2000 m |
Maximum Flexible Joint Rotation | 8.1 Degrees | Slight increase in comparison to 2000 m |
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Amaechi, C.V.; Chesterton, C.; Butler, H.O.; Gillet, N.; Wang, C.; Ja’e, I.A.; Reda, A.; Odijie, A.C. Review of Composite Marine Risers for Deep-Water Applications: Design, Development and Mechanics. J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 96. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6030096
Amaechi CV, Chesterton C, Butler HO, Gillet N, Wang C, Ja’e IA, Reda A, Odijie AC. Review of Composite Marine Risers for Deep-Water Applications: Design, Development and Mechanics. Journal of Composites Science. 2022; 6(3):96. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6030096
Chicago/Turabian StyleAmaechi, Chiemela Victor, Cole Chesterton, Harrison Obed Butler, Nathaniel Gillet, Chunguang Wang, Idris Ahmed Ja’e, Ahmed Reda, and Agbomerie Charles Odijie. 2022. "Review of Composite Marine Risers for Deep-Water Applications: Design, Development and Mechanics" Journal of Composites Science 6, no. 3: 96. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6030096