Landscapes of Watermills: A Rural Cultural Heritage Perspective in an East-Central European Context

Abstract

Recent studies in rural heritage tourism have highlighted that watermills could stand as an important part of the pre-industrial tourism heritage. We contribute to rural heritage tourism by basing our study on the perceptions of tourists and local officials on the Rudăria Watermills, Romania. Based on survey and interview data, we document the strengths and limits of local watermills for tourism and describe the entrepreneurial agents involved in path development. Our findings point to the important role played by a local NGO in developing a path for tourism for the watermills, as well as the active involvement of local authorities and other local cultural leaders in including the mills in national and international tourism circuits.

1. Introduction

Watermills are part of the pre-industrial heritage. In the future, tourism developed around industrial heritage will attract an increasing number of tourists because the profile of tourists is changing; they want more demanding, segmented tourism in which aspects of heritage, environment and the discovery of new places and culture is more appreciated [1]. Besides the economic function of the mills, they also fulfil a social function. Throughout time and up to the present day, they have been marks of the identity of the local population, which gives them a role in nostalgic tourism [2]. In order to valorise industrial heritage, it is necessary to find new conversion ideas that are financially sustainable [3]. As Cosgrove [4] states, landscapes are symbols of collective cultural conceptions. The regeneration and preservation of cultural heritage, both tangible and intangible, is one of the main concerns of our century [5].

Rural tourism is an alternative for the development of rural mountain communities because it can contribute to the revitalisation of economic sectors and thus to the improvement of the life of the population [6]. Agrotourism is a notion that refers to farm tourism expressed through unique tourism practices, from sociocultural events to agricultural practices, and with traditional accommodation so that tourists can relive certain memories and experience nostalgia or feel the taste of the countryside [7,8]. Rural heritage tourism, on the other hand, includes all forms of rural tourism that can be used for tourism purposes. Watermills are a rarity, and the functioning ones are a unique feature that should be protected as industrial monuments, constituting an important part of the pre-industrial cultural heritage. Watermills are usually a forgotten part of cultural heritage and are among those technologies which are most vulnerable to destruction [9]. In an evolutionary tourism perspective, it is important to see how such pre-industrial technologies are affected by path development and trigger events.

The aim of this study is to discuss the recent evolutionary challenges facing the pre-industrial landscape of the watermills in the development of a tourism function. The first objective we wanted to achieve is to understand the tourism importance of the watermills and how tourists perceive the existing watermills in Rudăria as a pre-industrial landscape and their functional development for tourism, and what triggering moments appeared in the process of tourism development utilising pre-industrial heritage. Under the influence of certain factors, a tourist has a clear-cut perception of a specific tourist site, and triggering moments are important in defining the processes of pre-industrial heritage tourism. A second objective is to analyse how local people and NGOs could further develop the integration of the watermills into local and regional tourism, as well as what factors could contribute to pre-industrial mill tourism as a new sector in the regional growth pole. Understanding landscape values influences how a site is conserved. The conservation of a site requires understanding these real values, but also adapting to the perceptions of planners [10].

Basing on these two objectives, the following research questions are posed in this study:

(1)

How do tourists perceive the watermills, and what kind of triggering moments could be identified in the process of tourism development utilising pre-industrial heritage?

(2)

How do local people and NGOs get involved in the usage of, and tourist activities related to, the watermills, and what are the factors constituting (pre-)industrial tourism as a new sectoral growth pole of the region?

To respond to the first question, we launched a survey of tourists visiting the watermills, while to obtain information on the second research question, an interview with local people and NGOs was conducted.

We contribute to international rural industrial heritage studies [11,12,13], and to Central and Eastern Europe rural heritage works [14,15] in particular, by highlighting how the unique landscape of the Rudăria Watermills is perceived by tourists and locals, how local NGOs contribute to evolutionary developments in terms of rural heritage perspectives and mainly how path dependence and trigger events are important when talking about the post-communist transition of watermills as a tourist destination. As Brouder [16] argues, more studies on consumption-oriented paths in tourism studies are needed, and we try to shed light on how the Rudăria Watermills are perceived as a product of the landscape of rural tourism consumption. Furthermore, studies on watermills as part of the pre-industrial rural heritage in Romania are scarce [5], and we push forward existing debates by presenting the opinions of locals, NGOs and tourists on a unique watermill complex.

2. Theoretical Background

Watermills serving the local population are a rarity, and those that do work are unique sites that should be protected. As well as incorporating them into open-air museums, changing their function to serve as a restaurant or cultural centre is one way for the mills to be conserved [9].

Examples of pre-industrial technical heritage are of great interest as historical, technical and symbolic attractions. They also have symbolic dimensions, especially if they have in the past also had an economic activity that benefited the community. The significance of such pre-industrial objects has been demonstrated in terms of their potential to attract tourists and to have an impact on the environment. They have the capacity to revitalise elements of the inherited past, to attract a significant flow of visitors (with prospects for future growth), to boost tourism and the service sector in two hinterland areas and to restore the region [17,18]. Moreover, the relations between (post)industrial objects and revitalisation through tourism are complementary and substitutive [19].

Important concepts in evolutionary tourism development are path development and path dependence. If the former is a process in which various aftermaths are possible [20], the latter presents how institutions from the past could shape and constrain future developments [21,22], Path dependency is a process in which history is important. Events that have occurred in the past continue because of the resistance to change. There are several factors in the resistance to change—either there have been some local and regional financial implications, or some policymakers are making different cautious or even uninformed decisions. In conclusion, path dependence appears mainly in cases in which certain institutions from the past bring different shapes to the tourist destination and also constrain future developments (see [15,16,21,22]).

In evolutionary tourism destinations, there have been mentions of triggering events [23] or a kind of ‘changing moment’ [20]. Such events could dramatically reshape a tourist destination’s development. Among trigger events identified, there have been natural disasters, the coronavirus pandemic and terrorism events [20], but the tourism literature also points to the need to study more trigger events [20,23].

The rural environment provides a plethora of traditional activities and opportunities for relaxation and rejuvenation [24]. Activities such as fishing, hunting, walking and horse riding afford tourists the opportunity to appreciate the tranquillity and beauty of the natural landscape. This environment provides a distinctive opportunity to escape the frenetic pace of urban life and embrace a more relaxed way of living. Furthermore, rural tourism offers a significant cost advantage over urban areas, with activities and services often being more affordable. The reduced cost of products and services contributes to the appeal of rural destinations for those seeking to experience country life on a budget.

Furthermore, rural tourism provides economic opportunities for local residents through the development of local businesses [25]. Local artisans and farmers may benefit from an increased demand for their products, which can be promoted and sold through tourism. Farmers may establish direct marketing channels to sell their agricultural products and processed foods to tourists or local retail establishments, thereby enhancing the local economy and supporting the sustainability of rural communities [26]. Cultural heritage tourism has been considered important through the lens of evolutionary geography [13], but ways in which watermills could be integrated into rural heritage tourism are less studied in a Central and Eastern European context [5].

In general, the process of transforming productive elements into tourist destinations presents a significant challenge for both planners and tourism marketers. In the case of purely industrial spaces, the initial response is typically to cease the activity and erase the residual effects of the past. This is followed by an effort to enhance the remaining spaces through cultural and tourism initiatives. This is particularly true in contexts where the revival of a cultural identity is at stake, given the complex social and political dynamics involved [27]. Nevertheless, the transition from an agrarian or industrial economy to tourism is not straightforward. Such a development hinges on individual adaptations, frequently initiated by a few key actors. For these adaptations to have a tangible impact on the region, there must be a robust network of connectivity between these actors, coupled with a shared sense of urgency [28].

Tourism has brought socio-economic benefits to rural areas in Europe. Various studies have shown how rural tourism has helped to mitigate emigration in Spain [29,30,31], while in Croatia rural tourism has been a source of development for agriculture in Croatia [32]. Furthermore, Rachel Dodds [33] conducted a case study of Calvia, a municipality located on the island of Mallorca in the Balearic Islands, in terms of sustainable tourism and policy implementation for the rural area. Calvia is a good example of a mass tourism destination that, due to the pressure of tourism in the 1980s, has reached economic, environmental and social decline. A sustainable tourism policy approach has been established to support other tourist destinations in implementing sustainable tourism [33].

Other worldwide examples of rural tourism are presented in South America and Asia. For instance, Gale [34] specified that rural tourism provides new sources of income for families living in Chile. Moreover, Fleischer and Pizam [35] have shown that rural tourism has contributed to the decreasing income of kibbutzim in Israel. Another study by Çorapçıoğlu [36] on the province of Antalya in the central Mediterranean basin presents the society’s lifestyle and cultural structure. The study highlight that watermills are not included in the conservation programme in Turkey. The lack of inclusion of watermills for tourism needs action to initiate concrete measurements of their cultural, historical and ecological value.

In Romania, Iorio and Corsale [37] highlight the benefits of rural tourism development due to its potential for the socio-economic development of rural areas. On the other hand, Hognogi et al. [5] discuss the importance of watermills in the Someșul Mare river basin in Romania. The representativeness of the mills is established by the current number of hydraulic installations. The importance of the mills is confirmed not only by the technique by which flour was obtained, but the fact that they also played an important role in the life of the local people through their sociocultural function, as they represented a place for socialising and were perceived by the locals as meeting places [5]. Our study pushes forward these debates by going deep into the case of a unique watermill landscape and highlighting how it could be better put into practice for rural industrial heritage tourism.

3. Materials and Methods

This study is based on a mixed methods approach. First, we conducted a spatial analysis of the watermills in the studied area. Then, we launched a questionnaire of tourists visiting the mills. Finally, some interviews were conducted with local people and members of NGOs interested in developing the mills for tourism purposes.

Our initial approach was to undertake a geographical analysis of the context in which the watermills are situated. To this end, the following types of spatial data were combined in ArcGis 10.3: Corine Land Cover (Land Copernicus) [38], Digital Elevation Model (Land Copernicus, EU DEM 25 m resolution) [39], and vector data of water and transportation networks obtained from Geofabrik.de (open-source OpenStreetMap) [40]. Subsequently, the official administrative–territorial boundaries were obtained from the Romanian National Agency for Cadastre and Real Estate Publicity [41]. The boundaries and characteristics of protected natural areas were obtained from the Romanian Ministry of the Environment [42]. For aerial views/panoramas, Google Earth Pro (Version 7.3) was utilised.

The second phase of the investigation entailed the mapping of the watermills. This was achieved by means of a Garmin GPS GPSmap 78s GPS, which enabled the precise capturing of data points and their subsequent upload in vector format within ArcGIS 10.3. On this occasion, we also carried out an exploratory observation by talking to the managers and users of the mills during their operation and/or maintenance.

Third, a questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 157 tourists who had visited the watermills, eliciting their views on their experiences at the site. The questionnaire comprised 12 questions, including 7 closed questions on aspects such as access routes, parking places, accommodation possibilities in the area, dining possibilities in the area, the state of conservation of the mills, information available about the Rudăria mills, contact with the locals, products that can be bought from the mills and the general appearance of the village. The tourists gave a mark on a scale from 1 to 10. Additionally, the questionnaire included five open-ended questions, which provided respondents with the opportunity to express their opinions on the primary attractions of the Rudăria Watermills, potential enhancements to the tourism product of the mills, their accommodation choices, a list of previously visited or planned tourist attractions and their place of origin. In addition to the questions pertaining to the subject matter, three demographic inquiries were incorporated on the respondents’ age, gender and occupation. The questionnaire was applied in the field at the Rudăria Watermills in August–September 2022. The time taken to complete the questionnaire varied according to the way each person responded, but took no more than 10 min. A total of 157 individuals answered the questionnaire, of whom 94 (61%) were female and 63 (39%) were male. The age of the respondents ranged from 18 to over 70 years. The age group with the highest percentage was 51–60, at 21%. The next highest age groups were 21–30 (19%) and 41–50 (18%). In contrast, the age group comprising the smallest proportion of respondents was that of individuals aged 70 and above, representing only 5% of the total sample. After entering the questionnaires into a Microsoft Excel 2021 spreadsheet, the next step was to analyse the respondents’ answers, especially using the pivot function. The respondents’ home locality was also given an XY coordinate and imported into ArcGis 10.3. We did not collect any personal data (such as name, telephone number, home address), and the participants gave their full consent at the beginning of the questionnaire.

Furthermore, 20 local stakeholders were interviewed in April 2024 in order to gain a deeper understanding of the social, economic and cultural context of the site and watermills. The semi-structured interviews were conducted using a set of 12 questions, which were designed to elicit information regarding the role of the mills in the local area, their significance to the community, the ways in which they are currently utilised, their engagement with local community resorts and their importance for tourism development. The participants provided informed consent and were subsequently anonymised. A summary of the general characteristics of the interviewees is provided in

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of interview respondents.

Interview Code	Age Group	Gender	Education Level	Position	Born in Eftimie Murgu?	Lives in Eftimie Murgu?
I1	60–70	M	High school	Former mayor	Yes	Yes
I2	50–60	M	University	Mayor	Yes	Yes
I3	50–60	M	PhD	Former mayor	Yes	Yes
I4	40–50	M	University	Local councillor, engineer	Yes	Yes
I5	20–30	M	University	Priest	No	Yes
I6	50–60	F	University	Local councillor, guesthouse administrator	Yes	Yes
I7	30–40	M	University	Public servant	Yes	Yes
I8	40–50	F	University	Restaurant administrator	Yes	Yes
I9	40–50	F	University	Guesthouse administrator	Yes	Yes
I10	40–50	M	University	Local councillor	Yes	Yes
I11	40–50	M	University	Secretary	Yes	Yes
I12	40–50	M	High school	Local councillor	Yes	Yes
I13	60–70	M	High school	Former local councillor	Yes	Yes
I14	50–60	F	University	Merchant	Yes	Yes
I15	40–50	M	University	Former pastor	No	No
I16	50–60	M	University	Accountant	No	No
I17	40–50	F	University	Teacher	Yes	No
I18	40–50	M	University	Commercial director, local councillor	Yes	No
I19	40–50	M	University	NGO president	No	No
I20	30–40	M	University	Public servant	Yes	Yes

. The interviews were fully transcribed and subjected to thematic coding in accordance with the procedures outlined by Braun and Clarke [43]. The entire data collection and methodological study of this article was approved by the Scientific Council of University Research and Creation of our university (no. 33279).

If, for the spatial analysis, the data that we gathered is presented in the maps included in this article, the data interpretation for the questionnaire was based on selecting the tourists’ different degrees of (dis)satisfaction regarding the mills and this is reflected in the first section of this article’s results (i.e., Section 5.1). We did not use all the data collected from the questionnaire, because the remaining data could be used for an upcoming study. In addition, the data collected from the interviews was particularly voluminous. We made a transcription of all interview data, and then we followed Braun and Clarke’s [43] methodological steps: all authors read the entire data several times, then we selected many relevant quotes connected to the topic of our study, and finally we identified one major theme and five sub-themes (see Section 5.2 in the Results and Discussions of this article).

4. Study Area

The Rudăria Watermills are located in the territory of the Eftimie Murgu commune, of which the old name was Rudăria. With 1420 inhabitants in January 2024 (INS, 2024, [44]), Eftimie Murgu is located in the south-west of Romania, in the south-east of Caras-Severin County (see Figure 1). The Eftimie Murgu commune constitutes a component of the territories collectively designated as the “country/pays”, which encompasses a larger region comprising multiple localities. Indeed, the great depressions of the Carpathian Mountains have been known since ancient times under the name of “country/pays”. To be designated as such, a depression must exhibit the characteristics of a plain and be circumscribed by mountain peaks. Additionally, it must support a population whose primary occupation is agriculture and that encompasses multiple villages [45]. The case in question applies here, due to the fact that the depression comprises approximately 15 villages, a total population of less than 15,000 inhabitants (INS, 2014, [44]), no urban settlement and no railway. Access to the region is provided via a second-rank national road, the DN57B, which connects the depression to two small urban settlements: Băile Herculane and Anina. Băile Herculane is situated approximately 70 km to the south of the commune. It is renowned for its spa and thermal springs, which attract tourists from across Europe. Situated approximately 50 km to the west is Anina, a mining town with a lengthy history of coal and iron exploitation. It provides access to awe-inspiring natural landscapes and tourist trails.

A significant portion of the administrative territory of the Eftimie Murgu commune is situated at elevations exceeding 900 m, with the highest point reaching 1224 m. In contrast, the village is located at an altitude of only 300 m (Figure 2). In this context, the slope plays a role in determining the direction of water and its run-off, but also in the accumulation or deposition of eroding materials. Slope is particularly important because it can accelerate or blur geomorphological processes, depending on certain thresholds. In terms of land use, the largest area is occupied by deciduous forests, with more than half of the total area—66.89%. This deciduous forest belt corresponds to the mountainous area, while in the north of the depression there is arable land used for various cereal, potato and legume crops. In addition to the agricultural area, due to the location of the depression in the intramontane area, this village is characterised by its forest area, being the second most forested county in Romania. Due to the illegal deforestation that has occurred over time and the fact that the commune has two protected areas, in 2007 the first Sites of Community Importance (SCI) that are part of the Natura 2000 network were declared, defining ROCSI0032 as the Rudăriei Gorges [46].

The watercourse draining the Eftimie Murgu commune is the Rudărica river, with a length of about 30 km. It runs through beech forests and breaks through granite cliffs, then enters the village and runs through the middle of it, a suitable place for the 22 watermills. The hydrographic system of the commune exerts a considerable influence on local agricultural and economic activities. The watermills on the Rudăria river represent a significant aspect of both technical and cultural heritage, having been in use since the 18th century for the milling of cereals. Such examples demonstrate the efficient use of local water resources and their importance in community life [47]. The Rudăria Watermills have been acknowledged at the European and national levels for their distinctive cultural and historical significance. They constitute one of the most extensive functional watermill complexes in South-Eastern Europe, are included in the European cultural heritage and attract a considerable number of tourists and researchers. In Romania, the Rudăria Watermill complex is afforded protection as a historical monument and a symbol of rural heritage. The acknowledgment of these mills plays a pivotal role in the promotion of tourism and the preservation of local traditions. A total of 22 mills are located in the territory of Eftimie Murgu. Of these, 9 are situated in the Rudăriei Valley (in an upstream position relative to the village), while the remaining 13 are located within the inhabited area of the village (Figure 2).

In 1874, there were 51 watermills operating in the village of Eftimie Murgu. However, several successive floods reduced this number to 22 [48]. In the past, approximately 600 watermills were documented in the western region of Romania, the primary function of these mills being the grinding of grain for the local population. Presently, the number of these structures has diminished to less than 100. Furthermore, these watermills represent a substantial component of the ethnological heritage of the region, offering environmentally friendly, non-polluting and minimally disruptive operations [49]. The upkeep of these watermills is the responsibility of the villagers, as they are an integral part of their way of life. In addition to their primary function of milling, the watermills on the Rudăria river serve as important gathering places for the local community [48].

Despite the spectacular landscape and the exceptional number of mills on the water, there are only two tourist accommodation units in the village. In fact, there are only eight accommodation units in the whole depression, with a total of no more than 70 rooms. This does not automatically mean that there are no tourists, but they only choose to make a brief stop in Rudăria, often staying in one of the largest tourist resorts in Romania, Băile Herculane, less than 60 km away.

5. Results and Discussion

The results of the questionnaire were gathered under one major theme entitled ‘Tourists’ perceptions on the watermills’ and one sub-theme (‘The profile and degree of (dis)satisfaction of tourists with the Rudăria Watermills). Furthermore, from the interview data, we identified a second major theme (i.e., the role and local and tourism importance of the mills) and five sub-themes (the link between the watermills and the past by including some path dependence and trigger events that affected the mill’s development for tourism, the conservation and restoration of the mills, the role of the mills for the local community, watermills as pre-industrial technologies for tourism development and the need for intelligent tourism promotion of the mills).

5.1. Profile and Degree of (Dis)Satisfaction of Tourists with the Rudăria Watermills

The first category of results pertains to the analysis of questionnaires administered to tourists who visited the mills in Rudăria. Tourists visiting the Rudăria Watermills come from all over Romania, especially from the south-western part of this country. Most tourists come from Timisoara (the regional city of Western Romania) and the capital city Bucharest. Of the respondents, 69% were visiting the Rudăria Watermills for the first time; 14% had been once before and 11% more than three times, while only 6% or nine people had been twice. At the same time, 32% of the respondents answered that they heard about the mills from relatives/friends, 29% from the internet in general, 12% said they heard about it from online press and 10% from other sources. Only 1% heard about it from print media. Additionally, 68% travelled to Rudăria with family, 15% travelled as an organised tour, 3% travelled as a spontaneous organised tour and only 1% on their own.

In terms of the primary attractions for tourists, the local traditions in general account for 23.13% of visitors, with the landscape of the Mulinological Complex representing a further 21.09%. The Mulinological Complex itself is the primary attraction for 14.29% of tourists, while the conservation of the mills accounts for an additional 12.24%. The responses indicating the most significant factors influencing tourists’ decisions included location, the local population, organic products and originality, collectively representing approximately 10% of the total responses. It should be noted, however, that the Rudăria Watermills are not a destination in and of themselves. Indeed, only 31% of respondents indicated that they had visited the mills in Rudăria in isolation, with the remainder making this site part of a broader tour.

With regard to the level of satisfaction among tourists, the highest ratings were associated with interactions with local residents in Rudăria (9.24/10), followed by the availability of goods for purchase and the condition of the watermills. The primary concerns identified by tourists pertained to the limited scope for accommodation and mass tourism, as well as accessibility by car and the quality of information available (Figure 3).

Through an open question, tourists were asked to provide feedback on potential improvements to Rudăria. The majority of respondents indicated a desire for additional information, litter bins, enhanced cleanliness, greater promotion and publicity of the area, the provision of ecological toilets, larger and more affordable parking, the erection of information signs at key points at a greater distance, such as in Oravița, the availability of a tourist guide to provide information about each mill, the distribution of leaflets and the establishment of a restaurant or dining venue that offers traditional, authentic cuisine. The respondents indicated a desire to gain knowledge about the production of flour and the construction of miniature watermills during their visits to the mills. In terms of transportation, respondents indicated a preference for the availability of cable cars or all-terrain vehicles for rental. As a result, respondents indicated a desire for enhanced organisation of the various components, improved access routes and the rehabilitation of the village road. Additionally, some respondents suggested modifications to the roofing of select mills. The erection of protective structures along the route, particularly in narrow sections, and the implementation of safety nets on unstable slopes to prevent rockfalls would be beneficial.

In conclusion, the Rudăria Watermills attract a considerable number of tourists from across Romania. However, the international dimension is limited, and the majority of tourists do not select the mills as a specific destination, but rather as part of a broader tour. Conversely, the highest satisfaction rate among tourists is not associated with the mills themselves, but rather with their interactions with local residents and their products. The primary areas identified for improvement by tourists pertain to the provision of information, cleanliness and the general state of tourist infrastructure.

5.2. The Role and Importance of the Rudăria Watermills

5.2.1. The Link between the Rudăria Watermills and the Recent Past

From the voices of our respondents, we noticed that the major trigger event for the tourist development of the mills was the transition from socialism to capitalism. Among post-socialist trigger events we noticed four stages:

(1)

The moment in the 2000s of the massive renovation project of the mills as a collaboration project with the Astra National Museum from Sibiu, and the declaring of the Rudăria Valley as a protected area [49], is the first trigger event by which an increasing concern for organic and slow tourism has been generated in the region;

(2)

The rapid growth of tourism at the nearby Bigăr waterfall in the 2010s put the Rudaria Watermills as a second tourist destination in the area;

(3)

The ‘colour the village’ event, developed by an NGO outside the county (i.e., houses in the village were painted in their original colours by hundreds of volunteers) in 2019 led to more interest of tourists in the village and in the watermills too;

(4)

The coronavirus pandemic (2020–2022) diminished the flows of tourists to the mills, which has led to a current trend of better conservation.

Such triggering events [23] as presented above work as a kind of ‘turning point’ in the tourist destination of certain places [20]. These events have reshaped the watermills’ tourist destination development, especially by restructuring path dependency, since both the mill restoration and ‘colour the village’ were organised by organisations outside the Caraș-Severin county.

Watermills originated from the necessity to achieve equilibrium between the demands and necessities of human society and the potential resources in different environments. “These mills date back a long, long time, we do not know exactly when […] With the emergence of the current village’s glasshouse, the mills date back to then. They had a role and have a very important role today because here they used to grind the grains of both wheat and corn for the needs of the animals, the poultry in the yard and for their own consumption” (M, 65 years old, administration).

Given that bread was the most important component of people’s ways of life in the past, the mill and the miller’s profession are considered a part of social history studies because of their connection to livelihood, nutrition, ways of gathering food and their effect on the development and continuity of life in terms of socio-economic structure [50]. This is also confirmed in Rudăria, where the mills “provided food for them by grinding wheat or maize grains and of course for feeding the animals in their households” (M, 40, entrepreneur).

The watermill, as part of the materialistic culture of the past, with its special capacity, shaped local communities, gave them an identity and continued their life [51]. In Rudăria, “watermills represent a living testimony of the past, a way of living eco, natural, the memory of a past world […]. But which with the help of watermills is kept alive. For the village of Rudăria it represents an element of uniqueness, linked to the past” (F, 46, educator).

The natural landscape has been treated as a resource of factors that favour or prevent the location of particular mills and the possibility of their persistence, as technological and economic conditions have become increasingly unfavourable throughout history [52]: “they are a jewel—they were designed by our ancestors” (M, 40, entrepreneur).

As Hognogi et al. [5] posit, nostalgia can become a resource in its own right in the context of individualising a particular type of tourism. This suggests that the heritage of the watermills, with all its attributes, has a strong potential for heritage tourism. In addition to their economic utility, the watermills served an important social function, namely socialisation. They have also served as identity marks for local communities and as a source of inspiration for nostalgic tourism [5]. Also, in the case of Rudăria, the watermill had an important social function. “Both the mill, the 20–30 associates or rangers and the sheepfold on the mountain where the sheep gather had this role of strengthening the spirit of cooperation, the spirit of association” (M, 53, former mayor).

The mills played a pivotal role in the sociocultural fabric of the local communities. The nostalgic memories of the interviewees encompass recollections of visiting the mill to fulfil a current need (e.g., obtaining flour) and the human interactions generated by the mill’s social function. These stories can be transformed into standalone narratives, offering insights into the local history [5]. Through their “link to the past, those who feel the need to have a link to the past. For those who are more nostalgic and crave a flour mill grind, it’s the watermill” (F, 50, entrepreneur).

In conclusion, watermills have historically occupied a variety of roles. They have served as a source of sustenance, providing food for humans and animals alike. Additionally, they have been a form of organisation, both in the construction and maintenance of the mills themselves and in the organisation of the milling process. Over time, these elements coalesced to form a distinctive spirit, identity and sense of nostalgia.

5.2.2. The Perceived State of Heritage Conservation and Restoration of the Rudăria Watermills

The 800-year period of the operation of watermills in Northern Poland has led to the generation of a special type of cultural landscape, called a “molinotop”. Among a wide range of biotic and abiotic factors, the most important role in shaping mill-based landscapes was played by artificial landforms and specific transformations of the hydrographic network. The cultural landscape is defined by Myga-Piątek [53] as a “landscape transformed by human activity as a result of the development of civilisation”.

A survey conducted by Vashisht [54] revealed that the preference of youngsters for agricultural work and their ancestral watermill business has significantly diminished. This phenomenon is also corroborated by the case of Rudăria, where it was observed that “already young people are leaving; they have no jobs here, they cannot find one and they are not interested in working the land” (M, 40, entrepreneur). Nowadays, most of these mills are run by elderly family members, as they are highly emotionally attached to their traditional technology: “The population in the village has started to decline for a few years […]. After 2000, I don’t know, the population ageing, the young people have left for the city, there are not many of them anymore and the animals are not kept as much” (M, 40, administration). However, people perceive flour for consumption as being much better: “Even though watermills are now technologically outdated thanks to electric mills, people continue to use them because flour ground in watermills is perceived by people as much better quality for personal consumption than in electric or store-bought mills” (M, 41, NGO).

A case study of watermill construction in Ponthieu [55] revealed a positive correlation between the degree of political fragmentation and the prevalence of watermill construction. This was attributed to the intensification of investment in watermill construction in areas where rulers had control over smaller territorial units. The effect of political fragmentation on mill construction was found to be due to its influence on the ability of rulers to limit competition. This led to the construction of competing mills and lower milling prices, which reduced the total milling costs for peasants. When political power is shared among a larger group with significant investment opportunities, even without changes in the institutions enforcing property rights, the level of competition increases and can increase the rate of investment in the economy. A similar situation is observed in Rudăria, where “there were 51 mills and now we have only 22 mills” (M, 40, administration).

Recent studies [56] have demonstrated that the preservation and restoration of cultural heritage are crucial for the preservation of a society’s identity and collective memory. Such actions contribute to the maintenance of integrity and authenticity, thereby ensuring the transmission of knowledge and traditions to future generations. Preventive conservation, which encompasses monitoring and maintaining optimal storage and display conditions, is of paramount importance in preventing the physical and chemical degradation of heritage objects. This conservation and restoration of watermills has also taken place in the case of Rudăria, where “members of each mill participate in their maintenance. […] But lately also various actions have been made by NGOs and here I would mention […] Home in Banat, which has made an action of greening […] and printed a book in which all the mills in Banat are included. […] The Town Hall has even started several years ago to support the repair of the mills financially or with various materials. Also the locals and the NGOs, I even mentioned one of them, and the town hall” (F, 50, teacher) and “fortunately, the locals together with the local council take care of the mills and moreover try to bring mills which are in a state of decay back to life” (M, 31, priest).

Another study [57] dealing with historical and philosophical issues in the conservation of cultural heritage posits that restoration is employed when preventive conservation has been insufficient, with the objective of repairing and stabilising damaged objects and restoring them as closely as possible to their original state. In the case of Rudăria, according to people in the administration, there has been action to restore the watermills of Rudăria: “with the help of the association Home in Banat we managed to inaugurate, to start a project with the route of the watermills. Really ok, some markings have been made, it’s all for our own good” (M, 54, administration); “three years ago, four years ago it was with the association Home in Banat, then we cleaned, we made tourist trails, we cleaned the riverbed, we worked on them, we intervened to make them functional again” (M, 35, administration).

Conservation and restoration are not only important from a cultural point of view, but also have significant economic benefits. Cultural tourism, which attracts millions of visitors to heritage sites worldwide, generates substantial income for local communities and contributes to sustainable economic development [58]. The conservation and restoration that have also taken place in the Eftimie Murgu commune have contributed slightly to attracting tourists to the area. “Ten years ago you could count on your fingers those who came to visit the mills […]. By promoting them and through the Home in Banat Association but also on television, media and social networks the number of visitors increased significantly […]. Especially after the Bigăr waterfall fell I think it is the most important objective in Almăj” (M, 53, former mayor).

The conservation and restoration of cultural heritage is of paramount importance for the preservation of cultural heritage, ensuring it remains accessible and relevant for future generations. The conservation and restoration of architectural heritage involves not only repairing and maintaining historic structures, but also a careful approach that integrates traditional elements in a harmonious way. In the case of the Rudăria Watermills, “it has lost its traditional style. Instead of authentic shingles OSB has appeared, instead of stone cement has appeared. […] Tourists come to Rudăria to see something specific, not just to see a finished OSB, not to mention the dovetail style of the corner joints” (M, 40, administration).

Adopting traditional techniques does not necessitate abandoning technological progress; rather, it entails combining the wisdom and construction methods of the past with contemporary innovations. In the case of the Rudăria Watermills, the change took place with the use of new materials: “change refers to the maintenance of the mills that took place through the use of new materials. Although new materials were used, e.g., OSB, cement, they did not intervene on the mills in a traditional, authentic way that faithfully respected the structure, construction and conservation of the Rudăria Watermills […]. In the past, wood was the main material used to build the mills, e.g., wooden poles, guttering” (F, 40, administration).

This balance ensures a sustainable relationship between watermills and their environment, allowing them to remain relevant and functional in a modern society. Similarly, in the case of the Rudăria Watermills, the mills should retain their authenticity: “The mills should retain their authenticity through the natural materials from which they are built […]. For example the valley that feeds the mill and through which the water flows and the other elements of the mills should be rebuilt from beech wood […] as they were made by the old masters, beech wood from the Rudăria forest” (T, 41, NGO).

It is therefore evident that adequate funding and proactive measures are essential to prevent deterioration and sustain the cultural heritage, ensuring that the traditional heritage continues to be a living part of the rural landscape. However, without concrete measures, most traditional buildings risk collapse.

In conclusion, the original primary function of the mills has undergone a significant transformation in the present era. While flour was previously a vital component of the human diet, it is now widely available, rendering the mills less essential, particularly as younger individuals migrate from rural areas and the elderly constitute the primary users of the mills. However, the aspirational dimension is now becoming a factor. Flour produced by watermills is now regarded as a quality product, and the practice of milling itself is becoming of interest to tourists.

5.2.3. The Role of Watermills for the Community

Watermills have played a key role in the economic development of rural communities [59]. They were used to grind grain, which allowed farmers to turn grain into flour, a staple of the local diet. By automating the milling process, watermills increased productivity and reduced manual effort, allowing communities to focus on other economic and agricultural activities. For the community, the watermills at Rudăria played an important role in terms of the usefulness of the mills, primarily for obtaining food for both the population and the animals of that period: “They helped them to grind grain for themselves and their animals, for their corn and their animals” (M, 50, entrepreneur).

Nowadays and in the past, the watermills have played the same role for the community in the case of Rudaria: “In the past and nowadays they have the same purpose, to grind the corn grain, to make flour from which we make coleșa, mămăliga […] and first and second part for animal feed are made, grind wheat grains, corn, barley to make fodder for raising pigs, sheep and poultry possibly” (I, 40, administration).

Watermills and water infrastructure have also had a significant social impact [60]. They became central points in community life, where people met, exchanged information and strengthened their social relationships. Furthermore, watermills contributed to community cohesion through cooperation and mutual aid during milling processes in rural communities. In addition to the role of providing food for the population and the household, the Rudăria Watermills also played an important role in terms of socialising people, of cooperation: “Either the 22 mills or the 48. The pre-war period much more played a social role, a role of strengthening the spirit of association, so Rudăria had this spirit of cooperation.” (M, 53, former mayor).

Although the watermills in Rudăria played an important role in terms of providing food, in terms of cooperation, they are a living testimony of the past: “The watermills for me are part of the heritage left by my parents, they are a treasure of inestimable value that we must take care to preserve, preserve and pass on to our children” (M, 40, entrepreneur). Another responder states that “I grew up here in Rudăria and always wanted to go back. I love the place. For me the village and the mills mean a lot, it means childhood, it means, I don’t know, a quiet life and that’s what inspires me” (M, 40, entrepreneur).

In the global context, the technology behind watermills has constituted a significant step in the technological evolution of society. The utilisation of water power to drive grinding mechanisms represented an innovation that paved the way for the development of other hydraulic technologies. This was an early form of renewable energy use, demonstrating the ingenuity and adaptability of rural communities [61]. In the case of the Rudăria Watermills, they play an important role: “primarily they are important because people use them. If you produce at the mills, electricity is consumed; here they use water and don’t consume money” (M, 56, entrepreneur).

Watermills were among the first examples in the world of the sustainable use of natural resources. The use of water as a source of power has the advantage of avoiding the need to burn fossil fuels, thus reducing pollution. Furthermore, the construction and operation of mills have been adapted to minimise the impact on the environment, demonstrating a harmonious symbiosis between human activities and nature [62]. In Rudăria, people are of the same opinion because “the more expensive the electricity, the more beneficial the mill will be with water from God” (M, 56, entrepreneur).

In conclusion, mills can be considered an intergenerational pivot due to their dual status as a tangible and sentimental heritage. Nevertheless, they continue to be utilised as a means of both identifying with one’s heritage and promoting the local community.

5.2.4. The Role of Watermills as Pre-Industrial Technologies for Tourism Development

Tourism can be considered a distinct economic sector, encompassing a wide range of services. These include advertising, promotion, information, accommodation, catering, leisure and entertainment. Tourism acts as a significant driver of the global economy, creating a specific demand for goods and services that stimulates growth in their production [63,64]. The watermills at Rudăria can play an important role in terms of tourism development: “Obviously, more tourists means more money coming into the community, more food, more products from the community […] a valorisation there at the place where it’s produced, and a cheese, and a flour, or a jam […]. More accommodation, more people involved, engaged in tourist services, yes, I think that would increase” (M, 50, teacher).

According to other studies [65], tourist demand leads to the adaptation of supply, manifested by the development of tourist infrastructure and, indirectly, by stimulating production in related sectors, such as the construction of new means of transport and recreational facilities. In the case of the Rudăria mills, this tourist demand has also led to the development of tourist infrastructure: “an increase in the number of tourists in the commune has been observed […]. Tourism due to the watermills has influenced the village in a beneficial way by developing the tourist infrastructure […] several guesthouses have appeared, places where you can eat, even a parking lot has been created” (M, 41, NGO).

The expansion of tourism is generating a significant increase in output. In addition to the economic impact, tourism also has a profound sociocultural significance, directly influencing both tourists and local residents in the areas visited. The effects of tourism are also reflected in the quality of the environment, the use of leisure time and not least in interhuman relations [66]. In Rudăria, this social impact on tourism is also reflected: “secondly from a social point of view through the bonds that are created between people, through the interaction of people with tourists and through the social role watermills get to be promoted further” (M, 40, administration).

Tourism contributes to meeting people’s material and spiritual needs. Natural and man-made resources are sustainable and can be harnessed without the risk of depletion through tourism alone. Moreover, tourism developments, through their objectives and content, align with efforts to rationally exploit resources and protect the environment [67]. This exploitation of resources combined with environmental protection is also embodied in the Rudăria Watermills: “The Rudăria Watermills were used in the past to grind grain, corn or wheat by which flour was obtained in an eco-friendly way and used by locals for their own consumption” (M, 40, administration).

In the global context, the growth in the number of tourists has a positive impact on the local economy, as it increases demand for local services such as accommodation and restaurants. This additional revenue can be reinvested in infrastructure and public services [68]. Similarly, in Rudăria, the increase in the number of tourists “has led to the stimulation and development of the economy and infrastructure of the village in the case of the watermills in Rudăria” (M, 40, entrepreneur).

The development of infrastructure and services is also a positive effect, as it allows the community to cope with the influx of tourists by investing in improving roads and other facilities, which also improves the quality of life of residents [69]. Tourism can create a wide range of jobs, from the hospitality sector to tour guides and local artisans, which helps to reduce unemployment and stabilise the population [70]. The effects due to watermill tourism are also present in the case of the watermills at Rudăria: “They are important for the community because thanks to the mills, they started to make guesthouses and market the finished products from the mill” (M, 47, administration).

The development of such rural ensembles in the context of tourism represents a potential opportunity for Romanian villages to differentiate themselves in the international tourism market. Potential visitors are offered tours based on experiential tourism, which involves the creation of outdoor museums that reproduce a certain period in the history of the rural community [71]. In the case of the Rudăria Watermills, the development of experiential tourism was among the interview respondents’ views: “there should be at every, every mill or at least one mill that has a destination, that is a museum, a mill museum. I mean someone should be there all the time, to explain and show how it works” (M, 50, teacher). Therefore, besides their pre-industrial importance for tourism, museums could have also relevance for educational tourism [72,73].

A study by Smith [71] on the relationship between culture, tourism and regeneration identified the potential benefits of developing a tourism brand for a municipality, both economically and socially. A well-defined brand can attract the attention of national and international tourists, promoting the unique elements of the commune, such as traditions, landscapes and gastronomy, thus differentiating the destination in the tourist market. In the case of Rudăria, the creation of a well-defined brand can attract tourists: “the watermills of Rudăria are in fact the second largest watermill park in Europe” (F, 40, administration).

A tourism brand serves to highlight the cultural and natural heritage of the commune, thereby encouraging its conservation. It is therefore to be expected that tourists interested in local culture and nature will support conservation and sustainability initiatives [74]. In Rudăria, action has been taken to protect and conserve the watermills: “European funding project, collaboration with the Astra museum in Sibiu where there were special events at the reception of the mills […] there were 110 people at the final reception where people also came from the European Union; there were European funds through the FARE programme” (M, 65, administration).

In the future, the tourism brand can assist the community by diversifying the local economy, providing an economy based not only on agriculture or industry but also on tourism, making it more resilient to economic fluctuations [75,76,77]. As in other cases around the world, tourism activities can provide viable alternatives for residents’ incomes, and in the case of Rudăria “if people were aware and as much as possible put on sale the products that they have in their own gardens, they could value these products” (M, 65, administration).

A positive tourism brand can also enhance the image of the commune, attracting investment and new residents, and encourage young people to stay in the commune or return after their studies [78]. In the case of Rudăria, too, there are people who have wanted to live and invest in the community again: “I grew up here in Rudăria and always wanted to come back” (F, 40, entrepreneur).

Community involvement in the development of a tourism brand can strengthen social cohesion and a sense of local pride, stimulating collaboration between residents and local authorities [79,80]. This sense of pride and social cohesion is also affirmed in the case of Rudăria: “both my husband and I participated there and with physical labour and free accommodation for those who came voluntarily to help” (M, 40, entrepreneur). The involvement of young people in the area contributes to social cohesion and to the whole community: “we participated together with the children from the high school in Bozovici, with the volunteers there in the rehabilitation of the watermills carried out by the association Home in Banat. We participated together with the children” (M, 50, teacher).

A sustainable tourism brand will prioritise responsible development, ensuring the protection of natural and cultural resources for future generations. Additionally, eco-tourism initiatives and environmentally friendly practices can attract a segment of tourists concerned with sustainability [81]. The people who lived and grew up in Rudăria want to preserve the watermills for future generations: “we are proud of them because so many people come to see them […] and we keep them with sanctity for our children, for our grandchildren and we carry them on, so that they don’t deteriorate” (M, 65, administration).

Nostalgic tourism is travel undertaken to relive memories or experience aspects of the personal or collective past, with multiple economic and social benefits. It allows tourists to connect emotionally with their past or with special historical periods, generating feelings of personal satisfaction [82]. And in the case of Rudăria, the watermills still represent a sense of personal satisfaction, a connection to the past of the people who grew up here: “For me watermills mean a way of life, tradition, the living preservation of a world long gone, but which manages to live on through this living outdoor museum” (F, 46, educator).

Nostalgic tourism can also revitalise local communities by increasing revenue, which can be reinvested in the preservation of historic sites and infrastructure development [83]. Nostalgic tourism also serves as an educational tool, promoting cultural awareness and respect for traditions [84]. This type of tourism can include visits to childhood places and participation in historical re-enactments and themed festivals [85,86]. For many people in Rudăria, the watermills illustrate childhood memories “the watermills mean a lot, they mean childhood, they mean a peaceful life” (F, 40, entrepreneur).

However, the major challenges of nostalgia tourism include ensuring the authenticity of the experiences and preserving the heritage, which is necessary to protect cultural and historical values for future generations [87,88]. At the level of Rudăria, there is a desire to preserve and ensure authenticity: “I see the difference between flour, a store-bought flour and an authentic mill-made flour” (F, 40, entrepreneur).

To sum up, the impact of the watermills can be considered economic, sociocultural and environmental. These factors have stimulated the local society and economy, prompting the realisation among the local population that a common and seemingly trivial fact—the use of watermills by all—is, in fact, a point of national interest and importance.

5.2.5. Future of Pre-Industrial Tourism Development and the Need for Intelligent Promotion of Tourism

A 2015 study on smart tourism [89] posits that smart tourism’s development and promotion entails the utilisation of advanced technologies and innovative strategies to optimise the tourism experience and ensure long-term sustainability. This concept is based on the integration of digital technology, modern infrastructure and sustainable practices to create attractive and resilient destinations. A key aspect of smart tourism development is the use of data and analytics to understand tourist behaviour and preferences. By collecting and interpreting data from various sources, including social networks, mobile devices and reservation systems, tourism authorities can tailor offerings and services in real time to meet visitor needs [89]. This not only enhances the tourism experience, but also enables a more efficient management of resources and tourist flows. Technology plays a crucial role in smart tourism promotion. Online platforms, mobile apps and virtual reality are powerful tools for attracting and informing tourists. For instance, virtual reality allows potential visitors to virtually explore destinations before making a booking, thereby increasing interest and the likelihood of attracting tourists [90,91]. Moreover, the utilisation of personalised digital marketing strategies based on individual demographics and preferences can enhance the efficacy of promotional campaigns [92,93].

In the case of the watermills of Rudăria, it is desired that they should be “more promoted and I do not mean promotion on social networks or on TV. […] the authorities should have done earlier some festivals dedicated to them. […] People come, buy local products, they see the difference between flour, a store-bought flour and the authentic mill-made one. I spread the word, I tell others. Next year they come again. It’s a start with this Dairy Day, but it’s not a dedicated day in particular. […] It should be something special for the mills, because most of the tourists who come here for that know us and less for the Lilac Day, where mainly people from the Almăj Valley area, relatives, close ones come” (F, 40, entrepreneur).

Sustainability is another central pillar of smart tourism development. Sustainable practices include the responsible management of natural resources, the promotion of cultural tourism and the involvement of local communities in the development process. The implementation of these practices allows tourism destinations to minimise negative environmental impacts and ensure long-term economic and social benefits [94]. In the case of Rudăria, the watermills should be developed in a sustainable way: “Also, the watermills at Rudăria should become a must-visit or must-see attraction at least once in a lifetime. The commune should develop through agriculture, sustainable tourism” (M, 41, NGO).

The development and promotion of smart tourism represents an effective and sustainable approach to the management and attraction of tourists. The integration of advanced technology and sustainable practices enables tourist destinations to offer quality experiences while protecting natural and cultural resources for future generations. In the case of Rudăria, there are suggestions that “there needs to be an online promotion site, […] dedicated to watermills, maintained regularly. Promoted legends, in my mind just bring you one of the visions, so to say, or a dream. […] Why shouldn’t the whole valley, with the watermills during the tourist season, in the summer season not be full of horse-drawn carts providing transport to tourists for a fee? […] Each mill should be flanked by young people dressed in folk costumes, offering leaflets and guides, why not in a foreign language” (M, 53, former mayor).

The “smart tourism” label in a small rural community does not have an online high-tech valence. However, the “smart character” of this label is precisely the natural sustainability of the way it is used. Conversely, some stakeholders recognise the necessity of emphasising the promotion of mills in the digital domain.

To conclude, we have summarised our results in

Table 2. Summary of the results.

Analysis: Selected Themes And Sub-Themes	Major Results
Quantitative analysis of tourists’ perceptions Theme no 1: Tourists’ perceptions of the watermills Sub-theme 1 Profile and degree of (dis)satisfaction of tourists with the Rudăria Watermills	The Rudăria Watermills attract a significant number of tourists from across Romania, but the international dimension of this tourist attraction is relatively limited.
	The majority of tourists do not select the mills as a specific destination; rather, they are included as part of a broader tour.
	The highest satisfaction rate among tourists is not associated with the mills themselves, but rather with their interactions with local residents and their products.
	In particular, tourists have expressed concerns regarding the availability and clarity of information, the condition of facilities and infrastructure and the overall cleanliness of the area.
Qualitative analysis of local people and NGOs Theme no 2: The role and local tourism importance of the Rudăria Watermills Sub-theme 1: The link between the Rudăria mills and the recent past	Watermills have historically fulfilled a multitude of roles, including as a source of sustenance, providing food for humans and animals alike. Watermills have served as a form of organisation, both in the construction and maintenance of the mills themselves and in the organisation of the milling process. The major trigger event for the tourist development of the watermills was the transition from communism to capitalism. Among post-communist second-level trigger events, we noticed: The 2000s moment of the massive renovation project of the mills (as a collaboration project with the Astra National Museum from Sibiu) is the earliest trigger event by which an increasing concern for organic and slow tourism has been generated in the region; The rapid growth of tourism at the nearby Bigăr waterfall in the 2010s put the Rudaria Watermills as a second tourist destination in the area; The ‘colour the village’ event (i.e., houses in the village were painted in their original colours by hundreds of volunteers) in 2019 led to more interest of tourists in the village and in the watermills too; The coronavirus pandemic (2020–2022) diminished the flow of tourists to the mills, which has given birth to a current trend of better ecological conservation of the mills.
Sub-theme 2: The conservation and restoration of the Rudăria Watermills	A significant conservation and restoration project has recently been undertaken on a large scale at the mills. This project has been carried out in collaboration with a local association, with input from local residents, and with the benefit of expert advice from a museum.
Sub-theme 3: The role of the mills for the community	Mills can be regarded as an intergenerational pivot due to their dual status as a tangible and sentimental heritage. Mills continue to serve as a means of both identifying with one’s heritage and promoting the local community’s ecological flour and are used for subsistence and even for making some profit.
Sub-theme 4: The role of watermills as pre-industrial technologies for local tourism development	As interest among tourists in pre-industrial technologies increased, so too did tourist activity in the village. This has generated significant media exposure, yet the village has not become a full-fledged tourist destination. Tourists most often visit the mills but do not usually extend their stay in the village due to the scarcity of accommodation units in the area.
Sub-theme 5: The future of pre-industrial tourism development and the need for the intelligent promotion of tourism in the Rudăria Watermills	The mills appear to be gaining traction organically, akin to a snowball gaining momentum. Notable or concerted forms of international and online media promotion have yet to emerge.

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6. Conclusions

In this study, the aim was to find different opportunities for rural pre-industrial heritage tourism development at the Rudăria Watermills. Through the voices of tourists, NGOS and local people, we identified the importance of watermills for pre-industrial heritage tourism in Rudăria.

The international implications of our study rest in highlighting that the mills have the capacity to revitalise elements of the pre-industrial past, to boost tourism and the service sector in the hinterland areas and to reinvigorate the region [17]. As mentioned also by previous studies [19], revitalisation through tourism could be complementary and substitutive. However, we found out in this study that there are still divergent interests between the locals, who are more interested in producing only good tasty foods and even obtaining some profit based on selling flour, and local NGOs and tourists who are more interested in rejuvenating the mills for tourism. Moreover, we make a contribution to existing trigger events issues for tourist destinations [15] by highlighting that path dependence and trigger events are important when talking about the post-communist transition of watermills as tourist destinations.

We respond to our first research question (how do tourists perceive the watermills and what kind of triggering moments could be identified in the process of tourism development utilising pre-industrial heritage?) by presenting the motivations and perceptions of tourists about the watermills in Rudăria. Most tourists proposed more involvement of local and regional authorities in the development of the watermills in terms of the integration of tourism. Tourists consider that the Rudăria Watermills attract a significant number of tourists from across Romania, but the international dimension of this tourist attraction is relatively limited. Furthermore, the majority of tourists do not select the mills as a specific destination, but they are included as part of a broader tours. Besides their traditional and historical importance, preserving the watermills needs to be an important task of rejuvenation for policymakers. The role of a local NGO seems to be critical in its involvement for the better integration of the watermills into regional tourist circuits. On the other hand, the satisfaction of tourists after they have visited the watermills is important, because it provides a better understanding of the influences of landscape values and how the watermill sites could be conserved. The lack of accommodation in the area and of a means of dealing with tourist waste should be critical issues to be solved by local and regional planners in the near future.

The findings of the survey of tourists and local stakeholders indicate that the historical and economic significance of the mills is still important, but it is now surpassed by other, newer dimensions. These include the mills’ role as a marker of local identity, the evocation of nostalgia, the concept of gastronomic sustainability and the promotion of rural and nostalgic tourism. The mills primarily attract tourists from across Romania, though they are not typically a primary destination. Rather, they are often part of a circuit or itinerary. Nevertheless, the international dimension remains constrained, largely due to a dearth of promotional activities and a paucity of familiarity with the nuances of interacting with foreign tourists, including a lack of proficiency in international languages among local stakeholders.

As part of this significant triggering event, we observed a pivotal moment in the 2000s when the Astra National Museum undertook comprehensive restoration work on the mills, which also brought them considerable visibility. In the 2010s, the nearby Bigăr Cascasa benefited from a significant international popularisation campaign, which resulted in a notable increase in the number of tourists in the area, including those drawn to the mills. Thirdly, in 2019, a local NGO initiated an extensive refurbishment campaign of the houses in the village of Eftimie Murgu, which saw the participation of hundreds of volunteers. This initiative also resulted in an increase in the number of tourists. After the positive trigger event of colour the village in 2019, which brought more visitors to the village and the mills, there came another negative event—the coronavirus pandemic (2020–2022)—when tourist mobility was very low in the area. However, this moment has increased concerns for rural tourism, slow tourism and healthy food.

By responding to our second research question (how do the local people and NGOs get involved in the usage of, and tourist activities related to, the watermills and what are the factors constituting (pre-)industrial tourism as a new sectoral growth pole of the region?), we noticed that although the mills’ visual appeal and the straightforward, centuries-old techniques may appear to be the primary motivators for tourists, the study indicates that their most highly valued aspect is the opportunity to interact with the locals and observe the preparation and production of their products, which contributes to the preservation of the region’s distinctive rural character. Watermills have historically fulfilled a multitude of roles, including as a source of sustenance, providing food for humans and animals alike. Moreover, the mills have served as a form of organisation, both in the construction and maintenance of the mills themselves and in the organisation of the milling process.

In terms of their conservation, respondents highlighted that a significant conservation and restoration project has recently been undertaken on a large scale at the mills. This project has been carried out in collaboration with a local NGO, with input from local residents. Therefore, a major factor in constituting (pre-)industrial tourism as a new sectoral growth pole of the region has been the conservation of the watermills.

Mills can be regarded as an intergenerational axis due to their dual status as tangible heritage. They also continue to serve the local community as a means of both identifying with one’s heritage and promoting the local community’s ecological flour, and they are mostly used for subsistence and even for making a profit. For the local population, the mills also represent a source of pride, both due to their historical role in feeding their ancestors and their contemporary status as a tourist attraction. Nevertheless, the declining young population and limited interest in agricultural work present challenges to the future sustainability of the mills. In light of these considerations, it is evident that external intervention is a desirable course of action. This is underscored by the involvement of an NGO and other institutions that are not based in the locality, which have actively contributed to the preservation and promotion of the mills.

As interest among tourists in pre-industrial technologies increased, so too did tourist activity in the village. Significant media exposure has been generated, yet the village has not become a relevant tourist destination, mainly due to a scarcity of accommodation units in the area. So a limiting factor in the tourism development of the mills is the lack of accommodation facilities. Indeed, tourists most often visit the mills but do not extend their stay in the village. However, the watermills appear to be gaining traction organically.

Our study has some limitations, expressed by the fact that the results could be different to other watermills in Romania or elsewhere in the world. Second, a larger sample of participants in the surveys and interviews could be made. However, we consider that our results are relevant for this particular case of Rudăria.

A significant challenge for the future is to achieve a balance between maintaining the original purpose of the mills (flour production), preserving them and promoting them to increase tourist interest, while also ensuring that their physiognomy and the bucolic character of the immediate surroundings remain unaltered. Furthermore, as policy recommendations, we propose the establishment of a transparent and readily accessible information system pertaining to landmarks as imperative. This system should encompass comprehensive details regarding notable destinations and their various thematics. Furthermore, these landmarks should be the subject of more extensive promotion in the media. Accordingly, this issue can be addressed by developing a model that leverages the resources inherent to a thematic trail through an online service. This would enable tourists to create their own itinerary, tailored to their specific needs, while also offering a range of additional functionalities [95,96].

Further studies could be carried out in other watermill sites in rural Romania, to see if there are similar or different results at the level of rural cultural heritage. Moreover, other studies could be made in Central and Eastern Europe in order to compare different functioning watermills, in order to have a broader picture of the complexity of watermill management at a broader regional and transnational level for rural heritage tourism.