A Preliminary Hazard Assessment of Kolumbo Volcano (Santorini, Greece)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Geological Setting
1.2. The 1650 CE Eruption
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Seafloor Analysis
- 0°–1°: flat to gentle slopes, characterised by terrain with minimal elevation changes, where there may be instability [39];
- 1°–5°: gentle slopes;
- 5°–15°: moderately steep slopes that can affect stability;
- 15°–30°: steep slopes that are more prone to erosion and landslides, especially in areas with loose or unconsolidated materials;
- >30°: very steep slopes that are highly susceptible to instability and failure.
2.2. Hazard Zonation
3. Results
3.1. Seafloor Analysis
3.2. Hazard Zonation
- Zone 1 (up to 7 km off Kolumbo’s crater), exclusion zone: This zone includes the offshore area around Kolumbo and reaches up to Santorini’s coastline. The zone was drawn based on its nearness to the crater and on the historical accounts of casualties offshore due to asphyxiation. In this zone, access must be strictly prohibited due to the danger of asphyxiation caused by toxic gas emissions, and the proximity to Kolumbo’s crater poses an imminent threat due to pyroclastic flows, ashfall, and potential tsunami generation.
- Zone 2, inundation area (8 km off Kolumbo’s crater) high-risk zone: In this zone, which encompasses the coast of Santorini, ashfall and tsunami generation pose significant threats to life. The zone was drawn based on the historical record and the tsunami model by Karstens et al. [13]. It is important to note that the model is based on numerical simulations and was not optimised for inundation; therefore, the acreage of the land is estimated and open to debate. The area should be evacuated to prevent a repetition of the 1650 casualties both inland and offshore, as it contains the most heavily impacted areas of Pori port, Kamari, Monolithos, and Perissa, where water reached up to 2 km2 inland. Additionally, this zone is extremely close to the only airport on the island, and its location could be compromised due to this proximity in a future eruption, creating problems with transport and isolating the island.
- Zone 3 (22 km off Kolumbo), moderate-risk zone: In this zone, the area is less likely to be affected by a tsunami; however, toxic gas emissions and ashfall still pose a significant hazard that can cause severe health issues as well as destruction of cultivated land and property. According to Fouqué [12], in 1650 CE, the toxic gas emissions reached the shores of Turkey. Considering that the prevailing wind conditions in Santorini indicates that the prevailing wind directions at Thira are the north and northwest (Figure S1) [46], the zone was drawn to include the whole island since, in the case of an eruption scenario similar to the 1650 CE eruption, the winds would carry the toxic gas and ashfall across the island. The use of protective masks, eye protection goggles, and burn-resistant clothes would be necessary to avoid health-associated risks.
3.3. Proposed Measures
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Katsigera, A.; Nomikou, P.; Pavlopoulos, K. A Preliminary Hazard Assessment of Kolumbo Volcano (Santorini, Greece). GeoHazards 2024, 5, 816-832. https://doi.org/10.3390/geohazards5030041
Katsigera A, Nomikou P, Pavlopoulos K. A Preliminary Hazard Assessment of Kolumbo Volcano (Santorini, Greece). GeoHazards. 2024; 5(3):816-832. https://doi.org/10.3390/geohazards5030041
Chicago/Turabian StyleKatsigera, Anna, Paraskevi Nomikou, and Kosmas Pavlopoulos. 2024. "A Preliminary Hazard Assessment of Kolumbo Volcano (Santorini, Greece)" GeoHazards 5, no. 3: 816-832. https://doi.org/10.3390/geohazards5030041