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Background:
Systematic Review

Techno-Economic Analysis of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Power Interruptions: A Systematic Review

by
Bonginkosi A. Thango
1,* and
Lawrence Obokoh
2
1
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Technology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
2
Johannesburg Business School, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Eng 2024, 5(3), 2108-2156; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5030112
Submission received: 8 July 2024 / Revised: 19 August 2024 / Accepted: 19 August 2024 / Published: 2 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Engineering for Sustainable Development 2024)
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Abstract

:
The challenge of providing reliable electricity during power interruptions, especially in rural and remote regions, has prompted the exploration of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs). This systematic review employs the PRISMA framework to conduct a comparative analysis of HRES configurations, specifically those integrating rooftop solar photovoltaic (PV), diesel generators (DGs), converters, and battery energy storage systems (BESSs). This review assesses the techno-economic performance of these systems in various countries, highlighting the cost efficiency, reliability, and environmental impact compared to traditional single-resource systems. The analysis reveals that HRESs offer significant advantages in managing energy supply during power interruptions, particularly in regions with high solar potential but unreliable grid access. A comparative analysis with other countries demonstrates that while HRES configurations are tailored to local conditions, the integration of solar PV with diesel generators is a consistently effective strategy across different contexts. This review provides essential insights for policymakers and stakeholders, facilitating the optimization of energy solutions tailored to regional needs.

1. Introduction

It is approximated that eight-tenths of the six hundred million people in sub-Saharan Africa reside in the countryside and cannot access electric power [1,2]. This is owing to several factors, for instance, the lack of economic capacity to expand the electric grid, population growth and immigration attributed to low consumption of electric energy that makes grid expansion unrealizable, and other social and cultural factors. In these countries, the population relies on fossil fuels (coal, diesel, paraffin wax, and kerosene byproducts), as shown in Figure 1, to achieve their energy demand and supply on account of their simple attainment and deployment; however, these fuels have some drawbacks closely related to the volatility of crude oil prices, distances to deliver the fuel, high operation and maintenance costs, and adverse environmental effects [3,4]. Clean energy technologies have been acknowledged by numerous countries as a solution to overcome the shortcomings of fossil fuels. Nevertheless, unlike on-demand resources, renewable sources of energy (primarily solar and wind) are sporadic and unstable and may not be able to respond to growing demands, making it challenging to acquire system robustness [5,6]. Moreover, they necessitate high capital investment in comparison to traditional sources.
Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs), commonly constituting renewable energy as principal sources along with battery storage and diesel generators (DGs) as backups, have been adopted to reduce day-to-day expenses and guarantee entry into the low-cost, dependable, and sustainable energy options [7,8]. The literature encompasses various approaches to supplying electric energy for remote areas, in particular network expansion, small-scale grids, and off-grid systems. A comparison between these options unveils that the network expansion option is not a feasible solution for the countryside in view of the high cost of expanding the grid for the considerably low population size and scattered residences, whereas off-grid solutions are bounded to a single residence. Small-scale grids are deemed the optimal solution [9,10] for powering rural regions in comparison with the other solutions. In recent times, HRESs have captivated considerable attention from scholars, attributable to their robustness and low cost in supplying energy for the countryside and remote settlements. There have been various research studies covering the techno-economic performance of HRESs [10,11,12,13,14,15,16] for the passable employment of the resources, along with size optimization.
Additionally, many studies [17,18,19,20] have explored the opportunities and challenges in the employment of mini-grids within the African context along with recommendations for governments and utility owners. Other studies [21,22,23,24] have been published by the World Bank with the help of the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program on the techno-economic analysis of energy generation technologies comprising mini-grids. Reports by IRENA [22,23,24,25,26,27,28] presented the costs of renewable energy technologies, demonstrating that these costs were slumping and will persist to 2035 et seq. On the other hand, the Alliance for Rural Electrification (ARE) published reports on the technical of hybrid system configurations together with business models [29,30,31]. These research works present a snapshot of the deployment of techno-economic facets of HRESs. Despite that, they do not put forward compelling evidence indicating to what extent these systems have been triumphantly incorporated into various settlements.
For instance, the power crisis and the demand for dependable power sources have driven South Africa to start implementing diesel generators (DGs) and rooftop solar photovoltaic (PV) systems as backup solutions. However, the adoption of DGs and rooftop solar PVs has been an uphill battle, attributable to the community’s and businesses’ minimal comprehension of the techno-economic perspectives including start-up overhead, long-term returns, maintenance requirements, and environmental effects, which confounds educated decision-making during power interruptions and load-shedding periods. This work is hence significant as it demonstrates the techno-economic benefits of DGs or rooftop solar PVs, enabling educated decisions for sustainable and reliable backup power during power outages and load shedding in countries like South Africa.

1.1. Diesel Generators

DGs are commonly used in South Africa because of their dependability and the country’s recurrent load shedding, where planned scheduled shutdowns of the electric supply in parts of the power distribution system are implemented to circumvent the entire electric grid failing. South Africa’s coal power plants, which are advanced in years and supply a large portion of the electricity, are burdened with frequent breakdowns and unplanned outages [32]. These difficulties, coupled with operational problems and employee walkouts, affect the supply of coal and give rise to inadequate power generation output to satisfy demand [33].
DGs are a popular recourse since they ought to operate independently of the electric grid, introducing a consistent electric power supply irrespective of atmospheric conditions. They are particularly favorable for enterprises and homes that necessitate sustainable power to steer clear of the financial and social upheavals attributable to load shedding. Nonetheless, DGs have high operational costs due to fuel expenses and maintenance requirements, and they play a part in the contamination of the environment through greenhouse gas emissions.

1.2. Rooftop Solar PV Systems

Rooftop solar PV systems have also become more sought-after in South Africa to address energy problems. The country has plentiful solar provisions with upper echelons of radiant heat from the sun during the year, making rooftop solar a viable and appealing option for renewable energy [34]. The installation of solar panels on rooftops allows homes and businesses to produce their own electricity, alleviating their dependence on the volatile electric grid and diminishing electricity costs over time.
The government has initiated numerous incentives to support the adoption of rooftop solar PV systems. For example, a rebate scheme launched in 2023 allows individuals to claim rebates for new solar panels and seeks to assuage the impact of load shedding and encourage the shift towards renewable energy [35]. Furthermore, the cost of rooftop solar PV technologies has declined considerably, making it more available to a broad cross-section of the population.
Regardless of these advantages, the adoption of rooftop solar PV systems is not without difficulties. The initial capital investment for solar panels and the related infrastructure including solar inverters and battery energy storage systems (BESSs) can be considerable. This fiscal impediment limits the availability of solar technology mainly to higher-income homes, aggravating already-existing inequalities [36]. In addition, whereas solar panels may decrease the dependence on the electricity grid during hours of sunlight, they generally need BESS or subsidiary power sources like DGs to ascertain a constant power supply during the night or cloudy days [37].
The proposed systematic review facilitates the consolidation of existing research on hybrid energy systems, specifically encompassing the two aforementioned systems, hence contributing to a holistic understanding of how these systems can be incorporated efficaciously. The proposed review assesses various configurations, performance metrics, and the feasibility of combining these technologies to ensure a reliable and sustainable energy supply. Highlighting gaps in the existing literature, as shown in Table 1, and ascertaining areas necessitating additional research will spur innovation and development regarding HRESs. The proposed systematic review will then serve as a foundational document that researchers can build upon to advance the field.
Table 1 provides a comparative overview of existing reviews on Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs). The studies, spanning from 2014 to 2023, predominantly focus on configurations involving solar PV and diesel generators, with some exploring the integration of wind energy and battery storage. While these reviews offer valuable insights into the economic and technical aspects of HRES, they often lack comprehensive coverage of recent advancements in battery technologies and their implications for system cost efficiency. Additionally, most studies are limited to either rural or urban applications, with few addressing the scalability of HRES across diverse geographic regions. Our study fills these gaps by incorporating a broader range of configurations, including advanced energy storage solutions, and by offering a comparative analysis of HRES implementation across different countries. This comprehensive approach not only provides a more current overview but also highlights areas where further research is needed to optimize HRESs for diverse applications.

1.3. Research Problem

In sub-Saharan Africa, a significant portion of the population, particularly in rural and remote areas, struggles with inadequate access to reliable electricity. The core problem stems from economic constraints, inadequate infrastructure, and the increasing frequency of power interruptions. These challenges lead to a heavy reliance on fossil fuels, which are not only expensive but also environmentally detrimental. The inability to provide continuous and affordable electricity hampers socio-economic development, exacerbates poverty, and limits access to essential services like healthcare and education.
To address this issue, this review investigates the potential of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs) as a sustainable solution. Specifically, the study focuses on systems that combine rooftop solar photovoltaic (PV) panels with diesel generators (DGs), converters, and battery energy storage systems (BESSs). These systems aim to ensure a reliable and cost-effective power supply during outages by optimizing the use of renewable energy sources while reducing the dependency on fossil fuels. This research evaluates how HRESs can be strategically implemented to overcome the financial and infrastructural barriers in these regions, ultimately contributing to a more sustainable and resilient energy future.

1.4. Research Motivation

The rationale of this work can be summarized as follows:
•
The pertinence of techno-economic analysis in the development of HRESs is a determining criterion. Without an in-depth comprehension of the techno-economic facets, the adoption of HRESs faces formidable obstacles. These incorporate high start-up overhead and the intricacy of merging multiple energy sources. Consequently, performing a thorough techno-economic analysis is critical to underline the low cost, dependability, and environmental benefits of HRESs.
•
In the available review works, there is a lack of thorough reviews that present the incorporation of HRESs into various settlements. This study aims to fill this gap by consolidating existing research on hybrid energy systems, particularly focusing on the integration of solar PV, DGs, converters, and BESSs. By identifying gaps in the literature and drawing attention to areas necessitating additional investigations, this work will spur innovation and development in the field of HRESs, ensuring reliable and sustainable energy supply during power interruptions and load-shedding periods.

1.5. Research Contribution

This work introduces a detailed systematic survey of HRESs for electrification during power interruptions and load shedding. We spotlight various pending issues and research challenges in the deployment of HRESs. The research contributions made by the proposed research work are as follows:
•
We furnish a thorough techno-economic analysis of HRESs centering on the integration of rooftop solar PVs, DGs, converters, and BESSs. This analysis underscores the low-cost, dependability, and environmental benefits of HRESs offering crucial insights for informed decision-making and promoting the adoption of sustainable energy solutions.
•
We consolidate existing research on hybrid energy systems and identify gaps in the literature, particularly regarding the successful incorporation of HRESs in various settlements. By addressing these gaps, we highlight areas needing further research and innovation, thereby advancing the field of HRESs and ensuring reliable and sustainable energy supply during power interruptions and load-shedding periods.
•
We also propose various regression models of financial metrics for DG, rooftop solar PV, converters, and BESSs.

1.6. Research Novelty

The novelty of this study lies not only in the absence of similar previous work but also in the recognition of an urgent need to address a critical gap in the existing literature on Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs). While many studies have explored the techno-economic aspects of renewable energy systems, few have systematically analyzed the combined use of solar PV and diesel generators (DGs) in the context of energy reliability during power interruptions, particularly in regions with underdeveloped infrastructure. This gap is significant because understanding the balance between renewable and non-renewable energy sources in such hybrid systems is crucial for optimizing both economic viability and environmental impact.
Furthermore, the study contributes to the field by introducing a comprehensive comparative analysis framework that evaluates HRES configurations across diverse geographic regions and economic conditions. By incorporating advanced regression models and sensitivity analyses, this research provides new insights into the techno-economic trade-offs involved in HRES deployment. These contributions are critical for policymakers and stakeholders who need to make informed decisions about energy infrastructure investments in regions where grid reliability is a major concern. The necessity of this research is underscored by the growing demand for reliable and sustainable energy solutions in areas that face frequent power interruptions. By addressing the overlooked complexities and interdependencies between different energy sources in HRES, this study not only fills a gap but also sets the stage for future advancements in the optimization of hybrid energy systems. Ignoring these complexities could lead to suboptimal system performance, higher costs, and missed opportunities for reducing carbon emissions. Thus, this work makes a significant contribution by highlighting these critical factors and providing a robust framework for their analysis.

1.7. Research Organization

The organization of the proposed systematic review has been presented as follows: Section 1 introduces HRESs for electrification during power interruptions. Section 2 describes the materials and method to develop the proposed novel systematic survey. Then, Section 3 discusses the results of the collected peer-review works. Section 4 concludes the findings of this work.

2. Materials and Methods

In this subsection, the study presents the methodology used to develop the proposed novel systematic survey based on the techno-economic analysis of hybrid systems that encompass DGs and solar PV. The study is based on a 10-year review. According to the best knowledge of the authors, there is no existing similar study in the literature within the last decade.

2.1. Research Questions

Although a considerable number of techno-economic analysis studies have been conducted worldwide in the last decade, a systematic review that outlines a comparative techno-economic analysis of diesel generators (DGs) and solar photovoltaic (PV) is yet to be available in the literature. Consequently, the current work proposes reviewing the available literature on techno-economic analyses of hybrid energy systems that encompass diesel generators (DGs) and solar photovoltaic (PV). To achieve this, the following research questions have been considered:
•
What are the critical techno-economic factors that influence the viability of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs) in regions with frequent power interruptions?
•
How do HRES configurations, including solar PV, diesel generators, converters, and battery storage, compare in terms of cost-efficiency, reliability, and scalability across different geographic regions?
•
What are the key challenges and opportunities in the deployment of HRESs in rural vs. urban settings, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa?
•
How do the techno-economic outcomes of HRES in sub-Saharan Africa compare to similar systems implemented in other regions with high solar potential?

2.2. Procedures and Stages of the Review

The research approach of this systematic literature review (SLR) is comprised of four main principal phases, as presented in Figure 2. The initial phase is directed toward integrating the appropriate approach for pursuing a review of the literature and laying the criteria for the literature that will be embedded in the current study. The second phase is aimed at the research work selection and incorporates data categorization and data inference. This processing of the data consists of data collation along with data analysis. Subsequently, the extraction and appraisal of the data are conducted in the third phase by employing the proper estimation criterion. Finally, in the fourth phase, data synthesis is performed, whereupon a stage-by-stage data analysis is carried out to articulate the proper inference of the selected study attributes.

2.3. Proposed Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

All peer-reviewed and published research works related to the study of techno-economic analyses of hybrid energy systems that encompass diesel generators (DGs) and solar photovoltaic (PV) were included for examination. Research works that were published in the English language on the techno-economic analysis of DGs and solar PVs during the last decade from 2014 to 2024 were considered. The proper criterion for inclusion was adapted to include appropriate research papers and exclude research works that did not include the study of techno-economic analyses of hybrid energy systems encompassing DGs and PVs. Consequently, only peer-reviewed research works that converge fundamentally on pollution techno-economic analyses of hybrid energy systems encompassing DGs and PVs studies were exclusively considered. The inclusion and exclusion criteria for this study are tabulated in Table 2.

2.4. Scholarly Work Search Phrases

The search keywords used to conduct this systematic review were formulated to pinpoint studies that presented attributes of hybrid energy systems on DGs and solar PVs for electrification. To select key index terms, experimental searches were carried out in a reiterative method. Keywords that did not yield research works aligned with the inclusion criteria were excluded. To be certain we included the analogous terms of the fundamental keywords, the analogous terms of the prescribed terms were established. Therefore, the “techno-economic analysis” synonyms were “cost-benefit analysis”, “economic feasibility analysis”, “financial evaluation”, “economic assessment”, and “economic viability study”. Keywords employed to describe the term “diesel generator” included “diesel genset”, “diesel power generator”, “standby generator”, and “backup generator”. The term “solar photovoltaic” had the following synonyms: “solar PV”, “photovoltaic system”, “solar power system”, “PV panel system”, and “solar electricity system”. In the searching procedure, the logic operators “AND” and “OR” were adopted to search for pertinent scholarly papers. The logic ‘AND’ operator comprises all chosen keywords, and the logic ‘OR’ operator envelops any of the chosen keywords. Additionally, the wildcard asterisk furnishes the plurals and other suffixes. Following numerous iterations, the keywords employed in this search within research paper titles, abstracts, full-text, and keywords of the published research papers were characterized as (techno economic analysis OR “cost-benefit analysis” OR “financial evaluation”) AND (diesel generator OR “diesel genset” OR “diesel power generator”) and (solar photovoltaic ∗ OR solar PV OR photovoltaic system ∗ OR solar power system). Figure 3 illustrates the bibliometric analysis of 218 research works published on the techno-economic analysis of hybrid energy systems that encompass diesel generators (DGs) and solar photovoltaic (PV) according to the Scopus database using keywords including “Economic analysis”, “Diesel Generator”, AND “Solar PV”.

2.5. Scholarly Work Sources

Eleven research data sources are employed for this systematic analysis, namely, scilicet, Google Scholar (GS), IEEE Xplore (IX), Science Direct (SD), Association for Computing Machinery Digital Library (ACMDL), Emerald Insight (EI), Springer Link (SL), Wiley Online Library, Taylor & Francis Online (TFO), Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI), Academia, Scopus, and ResearchGate. Multifarious available research papers were also ascertained for their research title, abstract, and search tags and were exploited to conduct additional search terms to track down published material including conference papers, journal articles, book chapters, and dissertations.

2.6. Published Works Search Process and Inspection

The step-by-step search process championed by [64,65] was adopted in this work to select the most pertinent research papers. Figure 4 demonstrates the steps enacted to categorize research papers that are significant to the techno-economic analysis of DGs and solar PV. Firstly, extensive searches of the 11 research data sources were conducted to choose applicable research papers. Secondly, published material that included research papers pertinent to studies on the techno-economic analysis of DGs and solar PV was selected. Subsequently, the lists of references of all opportune research papers that corresponded to the criteria determining inclusion were examined. Each reference list was sought for any supplementary citations that may betoken new research papers, which were then collected. Lastly, when the search process introduced the infiltration stage when searches could not add any additional research, the culling process was initiated. The primary list of chosen research papers was cleansed and examined to ascertain pertinence. The steps enmeshed in this filtration have been outlined as follows: Firstly, the research titles were appraised for relevancy, and the research papers’ abstracts and contents were scanned to establish significance to the subject matter under consideration in this research. The research papers were subjected to additional appraisal pursuant to the following criterion: published in English and contained a techno-economic research framework related to this study. Research papers that conferred this topic and had been published within the last decade were included.

2.7. Data Quality Appraisal

The quality appraisal was sought to enhance the veracity of the chosen research papers in this research work and establish the suitability and comprehensiveness of the findings. The research papers selected were evaluated based on quality by a scoring technique to adjudicate on their reliability, significance, and pertinence. The reviews were assessed through a proposed set of 10 criteria, as tabulated in Table 3. The collected research papers were of different research types.
These quality-gauging questions were utilized for all the collected research papers as shown in (Table 4). Each research quality question was estimated based on three possible responses., “Yes” (assigned score = 1), “Partially” (assigned score = 0.5), or “No” (assigned score = 0). This was performed via a critical examination of the abstract, research framework, results, and conclusion of each research paper. Consequently, the sum of responses scores was used to establish the quality of the pertinent studies.

3. Results

This section provides a description of the results including their interpretation, as well as some conclusions that can be drawn from these results.

3.1. Results of Study Selection

The study selection process followed the process illustrated in Figure 5. The research papers were amassed from electrical engineering research paper data sources with the assistance of the keywords that were mentioned in the previous “Scholarly Work Search Phrases” section. These research papers were gathered stringently in line with the conditions of the inclusion and exclusion criteria presented in the previous section. The search yielded approximately 322,314 research papers across all considered research data sources, and their titles and abstracts were surveyed. As demonstrated in Figure 5, the collected research papers comprised 218 research papers in total, of which 9 were from Academia, 59 were from Elsevier, 45 were from Google Scholar, 2 were from Hindawi, 28 were from IEEEXPLORE, 17 were from MDPI, 6 were from ResearchGate, 19 were from Scopus, 7 were from Springer Link, 12 were from Taylor & Francis, and 14 were from the Wiley Online Library. Out of the 218 research papers, 2 were book chapters, 38 were conference papers, 2 were dissertations, and 174 were journal articles. All research papers that seemed to have duplicate research studies were excluded. Therefore, the remaining 218 research papers qualified for full-text review and were incorporated into this systematic analysis process.
Figure 6 illustrates the distribution of research sources used in this review, underscoring the extensive scope and diversity of the data gathered from multiple reputable databases. As shown in Table 5, there was a significant increase in publications on Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs) over the past decade, reflecting growing interest and recognition of their importance. Furthermore, Figure 7 confirms that the studies included in this review adhere to consistent categorization schemes, facilitating a reliable and systematic comparison of findings across different studies.

3.2. Eligible Studies Attributes

Two hundred and eighteen eligible research studies were published between 2014 and 2024, comprising 4 book chapters, 38 conference papers, 2 dissertations, and 174 journal articles. Table 4 illustrates the number of research papers published by year in the last decade. There has been steady growth in the number of publications since 2014 as shown in Figure 7. Although there has been an emergence of many research studies on techno-economic analyses of DGs and solar PV, a comprehensive systematic review comparing DGs and solar PVs has not been conducted.
The number of countries actively participating in publishing research papers on the techno-economic analysis of DGs and solar PVs was also considered. According to the context where the research study was carried out, the published studies were categorized as represented in Figure 8. An appreciable number of the collected research papers was contributed by researchers from Nigeria (34 papers, 16.59%), India (34 papers, 15.59%), Bangladesh (17 papers, 7.58%), and Saudi Arabia (9 papers, 4.27%). The papers published in South Africa, despite the massive power issues there, amounted to only 4 papers or 1.9%. This indicates that there is still a lack of understanding of the economic viability of DGs and solar PVs for urban and village electrification.
Figure 9 illustrates the classification of system loads across different application contexts, such as residential, commercial, and industrial settings. The system load is a critical determinant in the design and optimization of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs). By classifying these loads, this study aims to demonstrate how hybrid generation systems, particularly those combining solar PV with diesel generators, are tailored to meet varying energy demands efficiently. The purpose of integrating renewable energy within these hybrid systems is to ensure a reliable supply of power that can accommodate fluctuations in energy demand. In regions where grid reliability is low, the hybrid system must be robust enough to handle peak loads and maintain continuous operation during periods of high demand. A diesel generator serves as a backup to the solar PV system, ensuring that the total system load is always met, even during times when solar energy is insufficient. This approach highlights the importance of accurately assessing system load requirements in the design of HRESs. By focusing on how hybrid generation systems supply these loads, the study underscores the critical role of system load in determining the optimal configuration and operation of HRESs. This focus aligns more closely with the core objective of the paper, which is to analyze the techno-economic performance of HRESs in different contexts.
The ability of HRESs to supply the full system load under varying conditions is a key factor in their economic viability and sustainability. By optimizing the balance between solar PV and diesel generator contributions, the system can minimize fuel costs and emissions while ensuring that the energy demand is consistently met. This load-focused approach provides a clearer connection between the design of hybrid systems and their practical performance in real-world applications.
Most of the research papers focused on mini-grid systems at 88.99% (194 papers) followed by water-pumping systems at 5.05% (11 papers), macro-grid systems at 2.75% (6 papers), solar-tracking systems at 2.75% (6 papers), and irrigation systems at 0.46% (1 paper). All the research papers included in this systematic analysis are founded on empirical data and quantitative analysis as opposed to authors’ biased opinions or ambiguous assertions. To address the adopted methodologies proposed in the selected research works on techno-economic analysis of DGs and solar PV, 218 studies were catalogued into 3 system configurations, namely, on-grid, off-grid, and hybrid (on-grid/off-grid). This classification was catalogued and is tabulated in Table 6. It is evident from Table 6 that a vast majority of the research papers introduced off-grid studies, followed by on-grid with 10.55% (23 papers) and hybrid on-grid/off-grid with 3.21% (7 papers).
The research questions presented earlier are intended to present the energy system type utilized, facility considered, and total load per day (kWh/day) supplied by each research study. The answers to the above questions are summarized in Table 7.
The data manifest the diverse applications and scalability of hybrid energy systems incorporating DGs and solar PV, as well as other technologies across distinct regions and facility types. The significant variance in daily energy loads indicates the potential for these systems to meet specific regional energy needs efficiently. These insights betoken the exigency of tailored energy solutions associated with local energy demands and infrastructure capabilities, ultimately influencing the economic viability and sustainability of these energy systems.

3.3. Description and Key Findings

In this subsection, the critical particulars and the main findings of techno-economic analyses of hybrid systems that include DGs and solar PV are discussed. The techno-economic analysis of DGs and solar PVs was investigated using multiple metrics. According to the information in Table 6, the majority of the selected research studies investigated hybrid energy systems based on solar PV/generator/battery, followed by solar PV/generator and solar PV/wind/generator/battery. The impacts and conclusions of these metrics are also discussed in this section. The research facilities studied (village, city, health facility, educational institution, etc.), as one of the most important metrics when investigating the techno-economic analysis of hybrid systems, indicate that most researchers performed their experimental studies predominantly in village regions, specifically for residential load, followed by city regions for the same application. Meanwhile, some researchers employed experimental studies to analyze educational institutions and island regions for residential loads.

3.3.1. Hybrid Energy Systems

Figure 10 shows the types of hybrid energy systems included in the techno-economic analyses and the percentage distributions of published studies. The most frequently explored configurations include solar PV/generator/battery (29.36%) and solar PV/generator (27.52%). These combinations are favored due to their balance of reliability and cost effectiveness. Battery storage plays a crucial role in managing the intermittency of solar power, ensuring a steady energy supply.
The inclusion of wind energy in systems like solar PV/wind/generator/battery (17.43%) highlights the effort to diversify energy sources and enhance system resilience. Less common configurations, such as solar PV/generator/biogas (13.30%), indicate the growing interest in utilizing locally available renewable resources to reduce the dependence on diesel.
These variations in hybrid systems underscore the adaptability of HRESs to different regional conditions and energy needs. The continuous exploration and optimization of these systems are vital for promoting sustainable and reliable energy solutions worldwide.

3.3.2. Studied Research Facility

Figure 11 shows that most studies on HRESs are concentrated in village regions with residential loads (40.28%), highlighting the critical need for reliable and sustainable energy solutions in rural areas. These areas often face significant challenges in accessing grid electricity, and the implementation of HRESs can dramatically improve energy access and quality of life.
Additionally, city regions with residential and commercial loads account for 17.96% of the studies, reflecting the urban focus on reducing fossil fuel dependence and environmental impact. Educational institutions (3.23%) and health facilities (0.47%) also feature in the research, emphasizing the importance of reliable power for critical operations. This distribution showcases the versatility and adaptability of HRESs across different environments and applications, highlighting their potential to meet diverse energy needs.

3.3.3. Software Employed

Figure 12 indicates that most studies on HRESs utilize HOMER software (75.23%), showcasing its dominance in the field for simulating and optimizing hybrid energy systems. HOMER’s user-friendly interface and comprehensive capabilities for economic and technical analysis make it a preferred choice for researchers. Its extensive use reflects the importance of robust software tools in accurately modeling and assessing the performance and feasibility of HRESs.
Other software, such as MATLAB R2019b (2.29%) and various mathematical modeling tools (16.51%), are also employed, albeit to a lesser extent. These tools are essential for detailed technical analysis and specific applications that may require customized modeling approaches. The diversity of software used highlights the need for different analytical tools to address the varied aspects of HRES design and implementation, ensuring that systems are optimized for their specific operational contexts.

3.3.4. DG Techno-Economic Analysis Results

The analysis presented in this study is based on data collected from a diverse range of studies that cover various geographic regions and system sizes. The focus is on Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs) designed to meet the energy demands of specific applications, ranging from small-scale residential setups to larger commercial and industrial installations. This scope includes single power stations in isolated areas, hybrid grids covering multiple regions, and other relevant contexts. The classification of system loads across different applications (as illustrated in Figure 9) provides a foundation for understanding how hybrid generation systems, particularly those combining solar PV with diesel generators, are tailored to meet varying energy demands efficiently. The systems analyzed here are intended to supply these loads while balancing technical performance and economic feasibility. The primary objective is to optimize the hybrid system to ensure reliability and cost effectiveness, particularly in regions where grid reliability is low or non-existent.
In this subsection, we have collected the techno-economic analyses of diesel generators (DGs). The data in Table 8 provide a momentary view of the research works by published year, focusing on various parameters related to DGs. The technical and economic performance of diesel generators (DGs) within hybrid systems presents several trade-offs that are crucial to their overall viability. DGs, while reliable, incur significant fuel and maintenance costs, which can outweigh their benefits in the long term if not properly managed. The capacity of a DG must be carefully matched to the system’s load requirements to avoid unnecessary fuel consumption. Economically, DGs offer a lower initial investment compared to large-scale renewable installations, but their ongoing operational costs can be high, particularly in areas with frequent power interruptions.
The analysis of diesel generator techno-economic parameters as shown in Table 9 reveals significant variations in initial investment costs, operational and maintenance (O&M) costs, and total net present cost. The average total load per day for the studied systems is approximately 7520.36 kWh/day, with an average diesel generator capacity of 246.50 kW. The initial investment costs range widely from $894 to $330,000, indicating diverse project scales and financial requirements.
Table 9. DG techno-economic analysis: parameters of proposed linear regression models.
Table 9. DG techno-economic analysis: parameters of proposed linear regression models.
Dependable VariableIndependent VariablesCoefficientt Statp-ValueR Square
Diesel Generator Capacity (kW)0.008392.026818.2210.0350.996
0.9980.501
Initial Investment Costs of Diesel Generator ($)0.82341,575.7544.0180.1550.942
1.0000.500
O&M Costs of Diesel Generator ($)13.289244,338.2010.8080.0590.992
0.9790.507
Replacement Costs of Diesel Generator ($)0.98929,841.856.5770.0960.977
0.9780.507
Operational Lifespan of Diesel Generator (Hours)0.0749070.613.0980.1990.906
1.8690.313
Total Net Present Cost of Diesel Generator in Dollars ($)17.234490,423.636.9960.0900.980
0.9810.506
The regression analysis shows a strong correlation between total load per day and key economic parameters such as diesel generator capacity and total net present cost, with high R Square values indicating good model fit. The significant variability in O&M and replacement costs emphasizes the need for careful financial planning and management to optimize the economic performance of diesel generators in hybrid energy systems.

3.3.5. Solar PV Techno-Economic Analysis Results

Solar PV systems, as a key component of hybrid setups, offer substantial long-term savings through reduced operational costs and minimal maintenance requirements. However, their initial capital costs and efficiency depend heavily on the scale of the installation and the availability of solar resources. The trade-off here lies in the balance between the high upfront investment and the gradual economic benefits accrued through lower operating costs and environmental advantages. Technologically, the efficiency of the solar panels and their integration with storage solutions are critical factors that influence the system’s overall performance.
The techno-economic analysis of rooftop solar PV systems presented in Table 10 highlights significant variability in key economic parameters across different projects. The total load per day ranges from 0.70 to 351,430.00 kWh/day, with an average solar PV capacity of 328.68 kW. Initial investment costs vary widely, from a minimum of $735.59 to a maximum of $755,000.00, reflecting the scale and scope of different installations.
O&M costs also show considerable variation, with an average of $576,137.00 and a maximum of $2,301,005.00. These costs are crucial for long-term financial planning and ensuring the sustainability of solar PV projects. The operational lifespan of solar PV systems ranges from 20 to 25 years, which is a critical factor in calculating the total annual costs and return on investment.
The proposed linear regression models shown in Table 11 for solar PV techno-economic analysis reveal significant insights into how different variables impact the overall economic performance of solar PV systems. The models indicate a strong correlation between the total load per day and various economic parameters, such as solar PV capacity, initial investment costs, and O&M costs.
Firstly, the correlation between total load per day and solar PV capacity (R Square = 0.910) suggests that as energy demand increases, the required solar PV capacity also rises. This relationship underscores the importance of accurately assessing energy needs to determine the appropriate size of the solar PV system. Similarly, the strong correlation (R Square = 0.939) between total load per day and initial investment costs highlights that higher energy demands necessitate greater initial investments. This finding emphasizes the need for careful financial planning when scaling up solar PV installations. Additionally, the models show that O&M costs and replacement costs are significantly influenced by the total load per day, with high R Square values of 0.951 for both parameters. This indicates that larger systems incur higher operational and maintenance expenses, as well as higher replacement costs over time. Therefore, it is crucial to account for these ongoing costs in the financial analysis to ensure the long-term sustainability of solar PV projects.
The total annual costs of solar PV systems are highly correlated (R Square = 0.909) with the total load per day, indicating that larger loads significantly influence the annual economic burden. This insight is vital for stakeholders to understand the financial implications of deploying solar PV systems at different scales, enabling more informed decision-making.

3.3.6. Battery Techno-Economic Analysis Results

The integration of battery storage in hybrid systems significantly enhances the reliability of power supply, particularly in regions with variable solar energy availability. The trade-offs in battery systems revolve around their capacity, cost, and lifespan. While larger batteries provide greater reliability and reduce dependence on DGs, they come with higher upfront costs and replacement expenses. The economic analysis must consider the long-term benefits of reduced diesel consumption against the costs associated with battery storage, including potential savings on fuel and maintenance.
The battery techno-economic analysis results summarized in Table 12 highlight the key parameters influencing the economic performance of battery storage systems in hybrid renewable energy setups. The analysis spans a wide range of total loads per day, from 0.70 kWh to 351,430 kWh, with corresponding variations in battery capacity, capital cost, O&M cost, and replacement cost.
The regression models in Table 13 provide further insights into the relationships between total load per day and various economic parameters of battery systems. The models reveal strong correlations between the total load per day and key variables such as battery capacity, capital cost, O&M cost, and replacement cost.
The analysis indicates that as the total load per day increases, the battery capacity required also increases significantly (R Square = 0.903). This suggests that larger energy demands necessitate larger battery systems to ensure adequate energy storage. Similarly, the strong correlation between total load per day and battery capital cost (R Square = 0.894) underscores the higher initial investment required for larger battery capacities. O&M costs and replacement costs also show strong correlations with total load per day, with R Square values of 0.904 for both. These findings highlight the importance of considering not only the initial capital investment but also the ongoing maintenance and eventual replacement costs in the financial planning of battery storage systems.

3.3.7. Converter Techno-Economic Analysis Results

Converters play a crucial role in ensuring the efficient operation of hybrid systems by managing the energy flow between different components. The capacity and efficiency of converters directly impact the system’s ability to handle varying loads and integrate renewable and non-renewable energy sources. The trade-offs here involve the initial cost of high-capacity converters vs. the long-term savings achieved through improved system efficiency and reduced energy losses. Economically, investing in more advanced converters can lead to significant reductions in operating costs, particularly in systems that need to manage frequent fluctuations in energy demand.
The converter techno-economic analysis results summarized in Table 14 provide insights into the economic performance of converters in Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems. The analysis spans a wide range of total loads per day, from 0.70 kWh to 351,430 kWh, with corresponding variations in converter capacity, capital cost, operating cost, replacement cost, and net present cost.
The regression models provide a deeper understanding of how the total load per day influences various economic parameters of converters. The strong correlations between total load and parameters such as converter capacity (R Square = 0.843) and capital cost (R Square = 0.766) underscore the necessity for substantial initial investments and the need to scale converter capacity appropriately to meet energy demands.
The regression models in Table 15 provide further insights into the relationships between the total load per day and various economic parameters of converters. The models reveal significant correlations between the total load per day and key variables such as converter capacity, capital cost, operating cost, replacement cost, and net present cost.
The analysis indicates that as the total load per day increases, the converter capacity required also increases significantly (R Square = 0.843). This suggests that higher energy demands necessitate larger converter capacities to handle the increased load. Similarly, the strong correlation between total load per day and converter capital cost (R Square = 0.766) highlights the higher initial investment required for larger converter capacities. Operating costs and replacement costs also show strong correlations with total load per day, with R Square values of 0.766 for both. These findings highlight the importance of considering not only the initial capital investment but also the ongoing operating and replacement costs in the financial planning of converter systems.
The least-squares method was employed in this study to establish robust relationships between key techno-economic variables in Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs). This method was chosen for its effectiveness in minimizing the sum of the squares of the residuals, which are the differences between observed and predicted values. By applying the least-squares approach, we were able to derive precise linear regression models that capture the correlation between system capacities (such as solar PV and diesel generator capacities) and economic outcomes (such as total net present cost and operational costs). The primary advantage of using the least-squares method lies in its ability to provide the best linear unbiased estimators (BLUEs) for the coefficients in our regression models, assuming the errors have a normal distribution and are independent. This characteristic makes it particularly suitable for analyzing the techno-economic performance of HRESs, where understanding the linear relationships between different variables is crucial for optimizing system design and operation. Moreover, the clarity brought by the least-squares method in this context is evident in its capacity to reveal the trade-offs between technical and economic factors. For example, by plotting the least-squares regression lines, we were able to clearly illustrate how increases in system capacity impact both the initial investment and long-term operating costs. This method also facilitates the identification of key sensitivities within the system, allowing for more informed decision-making regarding component sizing and resource allocation.
The successful deployment of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs) depends on a careful balance between technical performance and economic factors. The analysis conducted in this study highlights the importance of optimizing system capacity, ensuring efficient operation, and managing costs effectively to provide reliable and sustainable energy solutions. The findings emphasize that while solar PV–diesel generator combinations offer immediate reliability, the long-term goal should be to enhance the role of renewable energy sources within these systems. Future research should continue to explore advanced optimization techniques that integrate technical innovations with economic models, further enhancing the overall performance and cost effectiveness of hybrid energy systems.
While the economic analysis provides crucial insights into the viability of HRESs, the technological aspects are equally important in determining their overall effectiveness and sustainability. The efficiency of solar PV panels, for example, plays a critical role in reducing the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) by maximizing energy capture from available sunlight. Similarly, advances in battery storage technology, such as increased energy density and longer lifespan, directly influence the operational reliability and maintenance costs of the system. The technological robustness of diesel generators (DGs), despite their environmental drawbacks, is also a significant factor. DGs are capable of providing a stable and reliable power supply, particularly in situations where renewable energy sources are insufficient. This combination ensures a balanced energy output that can meet demand even in challenging conditions, such as during prolonged cloudy periods or at night. Moreover, integrating smart grid technologies and advanced converters within HRES can optimize energy flow and storage, thereby enhancing overall efficiency and reducing operational costs. These technological advancements not only improve system performance but also reduce the long-term economic burden, making HRES a more attractive option for energy providers and consumers alike.
This study underscores the role of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs) in advancing sustainability by integrating solar photovoltaic (PV) systems with diesel generators and battery storage to provide reliable and environmentally friendly energy solutions. By reducing the reliance on fossil fuels, HRESs directly contribute to mitigating climate change and lowering greenhouse gas emissions, thereby supporting Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 13: Climate Action. This approach aligns with the findings of [284], who highlighted the environmental risks associated with the dominance of fossil fuels and the need for cleaner energy alternatives to ensure environmental sustainability. Furthermore, the economic analysis presented in this review highlights the potential for HRESs to enhance energy access in underserved regions, promoting SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy. By improving energy security and fostering local economic development through the deployment of renewable energy technologies, this work also aligns with SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. The social sustainability aspect is addressed through the provision of reliable electricity to rural and remote areas, reducing energy poverty, and contributing to SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities by bridging the gap in energy access. Overall, this research supports multiple SDGs by promoting a transition to sustainable energy systems that are economically viable, socially inclusive, and environmentally responsible.

4. Conclusions

This systematic review sought to address the critical research gap in understanding the techno-economic feasibility and sustainability of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRESs) that combine solar PV with diesel generators (DGs), converters, and battery storage systems for electrification during power interruptions. Despite the increasing interest in renewable energy, there remains a lack of comprehensive analysis focused on the specific challenges and opportunities presented by HRESs in regions with unreliable grid access, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. The key contributions of this work include the identification of the economic and technical factors that most significantly influence the viability of HRES, the comparative analysis of various HRES configurations across different geographic regions, and the demonstration of how these systems can enhance energy access while supporting environmental sustainability. By systematically reviewing and analyzing 218 studies, this research highlights the cost efficiency, reliability, and scalability of solar PV–DG systems while acknowledging the environmental concerns associated with DGs. However, the inclusion of DGs is justified as a necessary transitional technology, ensuring energy reliability in regions where fully renewable systems may not yet be feasible. The significance of this research lies in its ability to inform policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders about the potential of HRES to provide sustainable and reliable energy solutions in areas facing significant electrification challenges. The findings suggest that while solar PV–DG systems are not entirely clean, they offer a pragmatic approach to improving energy access in the short term, with the long-term goal of transitioning towards more sustainable energy systems. Looking ahead, future research should focus on the optimization of HRES configurations to further reduce the reliance on fossil fuels, such as by integrating more advanced energy storage solutions or exploring alternative backup power options that are cleaner than DGs. Additionally, there is a need for continued innovation in financing models and policy frameworks to support the wider adoption of HRESs in regions with the greatest need. As renewable energy technologies continue to evolve, so too will the opportunities to enhance the sustainability and resilience of energy systems globally.

Author Contributions

B.A.T. conceptualized, carried out the computations, investigated, wrote, and prepared the article. L.O. was responsible for editing the article. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank local manufacturers and utilities for their contribution to the database.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Examples of on-demand alternative solutions in Sub-Saharan region: (a) Paraffin (Available online at https://www.ft.com/content/84733a36-901e-47da-9ee7-e5abb438f0fe, accessed on 15 June 2024). (b) Usage of coal to cook (Available at https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/cook-stove-africa.html?sortBy=relevant).
Figure 1. Examples of on-demand alternative solutions in Sub-Saharan region: (a) Paraffin (Available online at https://www.ft.com/content/84733a36-901e-47da-9ee7-e5abb438f0fe, accessed on 15 June 2024). (b) Usage of coal to cook (Available at https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/cook-stove-africa.html?sortBy=relevant).
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Figure 2. Procedures and stages of the review.
Figure 2. Procedures and stages of the review.
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Figure 3. Bibliometric analysis of study search keywords: (a) network visualization; (b) overlay visualization; (c) density visualization.
Figure 3. Bibliometric analysis of study search keywords: (a) network visualization; (b) overlay visualization; (c) density visualization.
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Figure 4. Systematic review methodology outline.
Figure 4. Systematic review methodology outline.
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Figure 5. Proposed PRISMA flowchart.
Figure 5. Proposed PRISMA flowchart.
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Figure 6. Distribution of online data sources.
Figure 6. Distribution of online data sources.
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Figure 7. Schemes following the same formatting.
Figure 7. Schemes following the same formatting.
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Figure 8. The share of research publications by country based on the study context.
Figure 8. The share of research publications by country based on the study context.
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Figure 9. Research study application.
Figure 9. Research study application.
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Figure 10. Hybrid energy systems studied.
Figure 10. Hybrid energy systems studied.
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Figure 11. Research facilities studied.
Figure 11. Research facilities studied.
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Figure 12. Research study Softapplication.
Figure 12. Research study Softapplication.
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Table 1. Comparative analysis of the existing review works and proposed systematic review on techno-economic analysis of HRESs encompassing DGs and rooftop solar PVs.
Table 1. Comparative analysis of the existing review works and proposed systematic review on techno-economic analysis of HRESs encompassing DGs and rooftop solar PVs.
Ref.CitesYearContributionProsCons
[38]6222014Review on IRES configurations, storage options, sizing methods, control.Detailed configurations and control strategies.Limited application in real-world scenarios.
[39]2812014Review on HES configurations, evaluation criteria, sizing methods, control, future challenges.Extensive techno-economic evaluation.Lacks detailed application examples and real-world feasibility.
[40]1842014Reviews design and implementation of HRES in micro-communities through case studies.Practical insights from case studies.Case studies might lack generalizability.
[41]1682014Examines substantial issues in HRES for off-grid power.Identifies critical issues and challenges.May not offer complete solutions.
[42]2942015Classifies topologies of hybrid AC/DC microgrids.Comprehensive classification of topologies.Limited focus on practical application.
[43]2882015Reviews optimization techniques for HRES.Focus on optimization methods.Lacks real-world implementation examples.
[44]2692015General review on HRES.Broad coverage of HRES topics.Generalized, lacking depth in specific applications.
[45]2012015Reviews developments in hybrid wind/PV energy systems.Detailed review of recent developments.Focused on wind/PV, less on other HRES components.
[46]4922016Reviews optimal planning of HRES using HOMER software (version 3.14.4).In-depth analysis using HOMER.HOMER-specific, may not cover all aspects of HRES.
[47]4502016Reviews energy management strategies in HRES.Detailed energy management strategies.Limited practical examples.
[48]3152016Comprehensive review on planning, configurations, and optimization for off-grid HRES.Holistic approach to off-grid HRES.May lack detailed case studies.
[49]3012016Reviews off-grid systems for rural electrification.Focus on developing countries.Specific to rural applications, may not apply broadly.
[50]2082016Reviews HESS and control strategies for stand-alone systems.Focus on HESS control strategies.Limited to stand-alone systems, not grid connected.
[51]1922017Analyzes techno-economic feasibility of various HRES combinations for telecom applications.Techno-economic focus.Specific to telecom applications.
[52]1892017Comparative review of stand-alone, grid-connected, and hybrid systems for rural applications.Comparative performance review.Focus on rural applications.
[53]1122017Reviews sustainable energy access for healthcare facilities in the Global South.Focus on healthcare applications.Limited to healthcare, may not apply to other sectors.
[54]2822018General review on HRES utilization.Broad review on utilization.Lacks specific application focus.
[55]2542018Reviews and compares off-grid hybrid systems.Comparative analysis.Limited to off-grid systems.
[56]1932018Reviews optimization approaches for hybrid distributed energy generation.Focus on optimization approaches.Limited to optimization, lacks application details.
[57]1162018Techno-economic evaluation of HRES applications and benefits.Techno-economic focus.May lack detailed implementation strategies.
[58]3852019Reviews HESS for microgrids.Focus on HESS in microgrids.Limited to microgrids, not broader HRES.
[59]3662019Reviews recent sizing methodologies for HRES.Latest sizing methodologies.Focus on methodologies, less on practical application.
[60]1762020Comprehensive review of HESS converter topologies and control strategies.Detailed technical review.Technical focus, less on application.
[61]1162020Reviews multi-energy hybrid power systems for ships.Focus on maritime applications.Specific to ships, may not apply to other sectors.
[62]1882021Reviews HRES in mini-grids for off-grid electrification in developing countries.Focus on mini-grids and off-grid electrification.Limited to developing countries.
[63]1112022Comprehensive review on sizing, optimization, control, and energy management of HRES.Holistic review.May lack detailed case studies.
Proposed systematic reviewConsolidates research on hybrid energy systems, assesses configurations, performance metrics, and feasibility for sustainable energy. Additionally propose novel regression models for various financial metrics of the system components.Holistic understanding, identifies research gaps, foundational for future studies.-
Table 2. Proposed inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Table 2. Proposed inclusion and exclusion criteria.
CriteriaInclusion CriteriaExclusion Criteria
TopicArticles must focus on Techno-economic analysis of hybrid systems with Solar PV and Diesel GeneratorArticles unrelated to Techno-economic analysis of hybrid systems with Solar PV and Diesel Generator
Research FrameworkThe articles must include a research framework or methodology for hybrid systems with Solar PV and Diesel GeneratorArticles lacking a clear research framework related hybrid systems with Solar PV and Diesel Generator
LanguageMust be written in the English languageArticles published in languages other than English
Publication PeriodArticles must be published between 2014 and 2024Articles published outside 2014 and 2024
Table 3. Proposed research quality questions.
Table 3. Proposed research quality questions.
Question (Q)Research Quality Questions
Q1Are the objectives of the research clearly defined and aligned with the study’s overall aim?
Q2Is the methodology described in sufficient detail, allowing for replication or a clear understanding of the approach used?
Q3Does the study present a well-structured research framework or model that underpins the analysis?
Q4Are the data collection processes and techniques described thoroughly, ensuring the validity and reliability of the findings?
Q5Is the research context (e.g., geographical region, specific application) clearly identified and appropriately aligned with the study’s objectives?
Q6Do the study’s findings provide significant insights or advancements that contribute to the existing body of literature in the field?
Table 4. Research quality question results.
Table 4. Research quality question results.
Paper IDQ1Q2Q3Q4Q5Q6Total%
1111011583.33%
2111011583.33%
3111011583.33%
41110.5115.591.67%
51110.5115.591.67%
61110.5115.591.67%
71110.5115.591.67%
81110.5115.591.67%
91110.5115.591.67%
10111011583.33%
………………………
………………………
………………………
2141110.5115.591.67%
2151110.5115.591.67%
216111011583.33%
217111011583.33%
2181111116100%
Table 5. Momentary view of research works contained herein by published year.
Table 5. Momentary view of research works contained herein by published year.
Published YearBook ChapterConference PaperDissertationJournal Article
201405013
201506013
20160619
201707017
201806113
201904023
202011022
202121018
202212020
202300019
Table 6. Configuration topology of the selected research studies.
Table 6. Configuration topology of the selected research studies.
ConfigurationCount%
Off-Grid18886.24%
On-Grid2310.55%
On-Grid/Off-Grid73.21%
Table 7. Recent and related works: total load per day (kWh/day), energy source, facility, and summary.
Table 7. Recent and related works: total load per day (kWh/day), energy source, facility, and summary.
StudyTotal Load Per Day (kWh/Day)Energy SourceFacilityContribution
[66]13.778Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Solar Tracking System LoadStudy shows hybrid system with dual-axis solar tracker and diesel generator in Khorfakkan reduces costs and emissions, achieves 48.55% renewable fraction
[67]115Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadSolar PV-diesel mini-grid in Char Parbotipur, Bangladesh, is cost-effective and eco-friendly, cutting CO2 by 53.68%, electricity at $0.461/kWh.
[68]80.0Solar PV/Generator/Fuel CellVillage Region/Residential LoadMulti-objective PV, fuel cell, diesel hybrid in Kerman, Iran, optimizes cost, reliability, addressing load and solar uncertainties.
[69]233.1Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Tracking SystemSouth Khorasan hybrid PV/diesel/battery system optimizes costs, reduces CO2 emissions, and improves reliability; highlights economic sensitivity to fuel, battery costs.
[70]960.0Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadTamil Nadu hybrid renewable systems are economically feasible; emphasize government subsidies for cost reduction and renewable energy promotion in remote areas.
[71]12.55Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid energy systems in five regions show Rajshahi’s lowest costs and emissions; grid-connected systems offer significant cost and CO2 reductions.
[72]398.70Solar PV/Generator/BatteryEducational InstituteSmart hybrid power plant in Delhi-NCR optimizes battery technologies, minimizes diesel use and costs, demonstrating economic and environmental benefits.
[73]431Solar PV/Generator/BiogasVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid system of photovoltaics, biomass, diesel in eastern Iran village optimizes costs at $0.193/kWh, with economic variability from $0.085 to $0.238/kWh.
[74]5500Solar PV/GeneratorEducational InstituteHybrid energy systems in India with 18% PV penetration match electricity tariffs, improving rural living conditions and reducing emissions.
[75]Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid photovoltaic/diesel system in Kerkennah, Tunisia, is cost-effective for rural electrification beyond certain load thresholds, using HOMER software.
[76]17Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Water Pumping SystemSolar PV more cost-effective than diesel generators for water pumping in Purwodadi, Indonesia, costing two-thirds to three-fourths less.
[77]Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV/diesel/battery system in northern Nigeria, confirmed technically and economically viable, replaces diesel generators, reduces emissions, lowers costs.
[78]Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadRemote PV-diesel system in Australia optimizes high PV penetration, battery storage, offering fuel savings and environmental benefits while maintaining power quality.
[79]161Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadIntegrating PV with diesel generators in Lebanon mitigates high energy costs, reduces GHG emissions; economic benefits limited without targeted incentives.
[80]6Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadPV system with batteries for rural Zambia most cost-effective despite higher initial costs compared to diesel generators.
[81]Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadEconomic evaluation algorithm shows PV systems more cost-effective than diesel generators in Iraq over 25 years.
[82]Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadSolar PV adoption in Nigeria reduces diesel generator costs, achieving significant savings through fuel savings and supportive policies.
[83]200Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadPV-diesel hybrid system in El-Sheikh Zayd, Egypt, with battery storage reduces diesel generator use, energy costs, and pollution.
[84]50Solar PV/Generator/BatteryEducational InstituteSolar PV/diesel hybrid system for Ethiopian rural school proves more cost-effective, environmentally friendly than diesel-only systems.
[85]24Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadOptimized PV/Battery/DG system for Nigerian telecom substation offers lowest costs, highest economic viability compared to oversized existing system.
[86]27Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV/wind/diesel system for Romanian monastery meets energy needs, reduces operational costs, proving viable for isolated areas.
[87]7.3Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorEducational InstitutePV system cost-effective for small compound compared to solar tower, wind turbine, diesel generator, providing electricity at $1.06/kWh.
[88]484.7Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadOptimized PV/wind/battery/diesel system for Nigerian village reduces costs, emissions, with 2.8-year payback, significant environmental benefits.
[89]16Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadBi-objective model for off-grid PV-BES-Diesel in Yakutsk, Russia, reduces cost and carbon footprint, showing economic and environmental benefits.
[90]14.4Solar PV/GeneratorEducational InstituteHybrid PV/diesel system with battery bank improves stability, economic returns, especially with higher solar penetration.
[91]251Solar PV/GeneratorOil & Gas IndustryHybrid PV/Diesel systems with battery storage for Nigerian oil sector superior to diesel-only systems despite higher initial costs.
[92]81.6Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV/Diesel systems with battery storage for Nigerian oil sector superior to diesel-only systems despite higher initial costs.
[93]452Solar PV/GeneratorEducational InstitutePV-diesel hybrid system for IUT academic building in Bangladesh reduces energy costs by 10 BDT/kWh compared to diesel-only.
[94]1046.7Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadRenewable integration with diesel generators on tsunami-affected Indonesian islands reduces costs, emissions, proving viable investment.
[95]8.6Solar PV/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadOff-grid PV system for residential use in Jos, Nigeria, meets annual needs effectively, economically viable at $0.18/kWh COE.
[96]379Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadPV, wind, diesel, hybrid systems for rural Colombia villages, identifies cost-effective solutions using HOMER based on local conditions.
[97]80Solar PV/Generator/Fuel CellEducational InstitutePV-Diesel-Fuel Cell hybrid for remote Bangladesh, minimizes cost, adapts to load profile, solar variations, reducing GHG emissions.
[98]Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadLife cycle economic analysis of solar PV in remote India shows cost-effectiveness compared to conventional power, aiding financial planning.
[99]25.6Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid solar PV, wind, diesel for Ghana’s Avuto community, achieves $0.39/kWh, 3.33-year payback, significant emission reductions.
[100]121Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid system for Nepal Television’s substation with solar PV, battery, DG, reduces CO2 emissions, economically viable than standalone diesel.
[101]3.3Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Water Pumping SystemSolar PV for water pumping in Palestine more economical than diesel or grid, with 1-year payback for replacing diesel pumps.
[102]1.4Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadSolar PV in Igu village, Nigeria, offers lower electricity costs, matches diesel within five years, proving more economical.
[103]4500Solar PV/Fuel CellDessert RegionHybrid PV/Fuel Cell system with electrolyzer for desert community, cost-effective at $145/MWh, zero carbon emissions.
[104]275Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadPV-Diesel system for remote Australian town, higher PV penetration optimizes cost, fuel savings, environmental impacts.
[105]7620Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid systems in Saudi Arabia’s remote locations show PV/Wind/Diesel most cost-effective; fully renewable systems feasible in specific climates.
[106]Solar PV/Generator/Fuel CellCity Region/Residential LoadStandalone hybrid in Khorfakkan with supercapacitors, achieves 68.1% renewable fraction, 83.2% GHG reduction, $0.346/kWh LCOE.
[107]Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadPV/diesel hybrid with flywheel storage in Makkah improves performance, reduces fuel, emissions, enhancing economic and environmental benefits.
[108]Solar PV/Generator/Fuel CellEducational InstituteOptimized hybrid system for university building, 66.1% renewable, low emissions, economically feasible at $92/MWh, minimal environmental impact.
[109]Solar PV/GeneratorHealth FacilityDiesel and solar PV mix, 70% diesel, 30% solar, minimizes cost to Rs 13.1/kWh, ensuring robust energy solution.
[110]Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential Load“Flexy-Energy” concept for PV/Diesel in sub-Saharan Africa optimizes energy mix, improving economic viability with optimized tariffs.
[111]Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid diesel and solar PV for Nigerian community, grid-connected offers lower costs, emissions, competitive with conventional sources.
[112]Solar PV/Generator/BiogasVillage Region/Residential LoadSolar-PV/Biogas/Diesel in Bangladesh, 75% renewable, lower emissions than grid, standalone diesel, higher energy cost.
[113]351,430Solar PV/Generator/BiomassCity Region/Residential LoadBiomass/PV/DG hybrid in Suifenhe, China, grid-connected system viable at $0.1498/kWh, 100% renewable not feasible due to costs.
[114]350Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadPV/Diesel/Battery in Bangladesh, Load Following strategy offers higher renewable fraction, lower emissions despite higher energy costs.
[115]9911Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid diesel/PV/wind/battery in Iran, off-grid higher COE, lower renewable fraction, government policies needed for viability.
[116]10.5Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid Solar PV/Diesel/Biogas system for Nigerian abattoir: biogas lowers costs and emissions, enhancing economic and environmental viability.
[117]15,397.26Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryIsland RegionDiesel/Wind/PV/Battery system for Androth Island, India: optimal hybrid configuration minimizes NPC, COE, pollution, significantly reducing energy costs.
[118]91.87Solar PV/GeneratorIsland RegionHybrid PV and solar system for Kodingare Island, Indonesia: economically viable with substantial renewable energy penetration, low COE.
[119]2424.25Solar PV/GeneratorEducational InstitutePV-battery priority grid tie vs. diesel in Ethiopia: PV system more cost-effective, environmentally friendly, reduces carbon emissions.
[120]4.89Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadPV/Diesel systems in Iraq: PV more cost-effective due to lower operational costs, higher energy capture.
[121]179.32Solar PV/Wind/Generator/Battery/BiomassVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid renewable energy system for rural electrification in Korkadu, India: optimal performance, cost-effectiveness, significant energy cost savings.
[122]4.8Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-wind-diesel systems in Peruvian villages: economically viable, significant CO2 reduction, high renewable fraction, lower NPCs, COEs.
[123]86Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadPV/diesel/battery hybrid system for Nigerian telecom stations: economically advantageous, environmentally friendly compared to conventional diesel systems.
[124]477.22Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadStandalone hybrid renewable energy system in Giri village, Nigeria: 98.3% renewable fraction, low GHG emissions, high environmental benefits.
[125]0.7Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid energy systems for telecom in Punjab, India: PV-Wind-Diesel-Battery configuration most effective for power production, cost efficiency.
[126]497.45Solar PV/Generator/BatteryIsland RegionHybrid solar PV-diesel-ESS system in Kumundhoo, Maldives: economically viable, significant cost savings, environmental benefits.
[127]208.4Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadPV/wind/diesel/battery hybrid microgrid for Abu-Monqar, Egypt: economically convenient, sustainable for rural electrification.
[128]216.44Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadOff-grid PV-diesel hybrid microgrid in Central Myanmar: sustainable rural electrification, high renewable energy integration, reasonable cost.
[129]1500Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV/Generator/Battery system in northern Nigeria: economical, environmentally friendly for rural and semi-urban electrification.
[130]497.45Solar PV/Generator/BatteryIsland RegionHybrid solar PV-diesel-ESS system in Kumundhoo, Maldives: economically viable, significant cost savings, environmental benefits.
[131]360Solar PV/Generator/BatteryIsland RegionDecentralized power stations in Sabah, Malaysia: hybrid PV/diesel/battery systems enhance sustainability, reduce diesel reliance.
[132]550Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadPV-Diesel hybrid power system for Cue, Australia reduces energy costs, diesel use, GHG emissions, potential for increased solar PV.
[133]68,808.72Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadGrid-independent hybrid PV-wind-diesel system in Al-Faw, Iraq: wind turbines, diesel generators, batteries most cost-effective, 45.5% renewable penetration.
[134]5.4Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid solar PV-diesel systems in Palestine, Lebanon, Iraq: economically viable in Palestine, Lebanon; less so in Iraq due to subsidies.
[135]5Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadPV-wind-diesel-battery system in Turkey: optimized for low energy costs, CO2 emissions, better than diesel-only systems.
[136]222.7Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV and diesel system in Nigeria: load following strategy most efficient, eco-friendly.
[137]332.97Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadPre-feasibility analysis of hybrid renewable energy systems: optimal PV/DG/converter/battery system for low-cost, reliable power, emission reductions.
[138]7.17Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV/diesel system with PV penetration, battery storage: moderate PV, substantial battery storage offer cost, emission reductions.
[139]631.76Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadAnalysis of renewable and hybrid energy systems for rural electrification: hybrid PV/diesel with battery storage most cost-effective, environmentally friendly.
[140]509Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadPV-diesel-battery hybrid system in northern Algeria: 25% PV penetration best balance of cost, efficiency, stability.
[141]10Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Water Pumping SystemEnvironmental, economic costs of solar PV, diesel, hybrid water pumping for irrigation: solar PV most cost-effective, eco-friendly.
[142]10.275Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadPV hybrid power systems in Urumqi, China: PV/diesel/battery system most economically feasible, reducing GHG emissions.
[143]2.489Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadLife cycle cost analysis software for Nigeria: solar PV cost-effective long-term compared to diesel generators.
[144]7.9Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid wind/PV/diesel system for Ethiopian households: optimized for energy cost, emissions, significant renewable fraction, economic benefits.
[145]2.5Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV/wind/diesel/battery system for standalone power: zero load energy deficit, economic viability.
[146]480Solar PV/GeneratorIsland RegionHybrid solar-diesel power plant on Kawaluso Island, Indonesia: cost reductions, positive NPV, reasonable payback.
[147]112.7Solar PV/Generator/BatteryDessert FarmPV-Battery-Diesel system for Qatari desert farm: hybrid system most economical.
[148]1023.2Solar PV/Generator/BatteryEducational InstituteHybrid Energy System at Kamaraj College, India: on-grid operation, load following dispatch optimal.
[149]4876.5Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadPV/wind/diesel hybrid system for decentralized power: maximize output, low cost, CO2 savings.
[150]445Solar PV/Generator/BatteryResidentialOff-grid hybrid solar PV/diesel/battery/inverter system for homes: high efficiency, low energy cost, low CO2 emissions.
[151]1131Solar PV/Wind/Generator/Fuel Cell/BatterySea WaterHybrid power system for desalination in Jordan: PV-Wind-Diesel-Battery optimal, low COE, significant CO2 reductions.
[152]2500Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid mini-grid for Nigerian rural community: solar PV, diesel, battery, reduces emissions, various economic scenarios analyzed.
[153]4Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Water Pumping SystemSolar PV irrigation systems in Bangladesh: hybrid PV-Generator-Battery suitable for higher loads, economic, environmental benefits.
[154]250.58Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV/wind/diesel/battery system for rural Tamil Nadu minimizes cost, CO2 emissions, PV-diesel-battery most economical.
[155]108.9Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadSolar PV-diesel hybrid mini-grid in Bangladesh: cost-effective, environmental advantages for irrigation, industrial applications.
[156]160Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadTransition from diesel to HES in remote Saudi Arabia: genetic algorithm optimization, cost reductions, hybrid system advocacy.
[157]12Solar PV/GeneratorHealth FacilityPV generators in diesel-unreliable grid at Shifa Hospital, Pakistan: PV-diesel hybrid cost-effective, reduces costs, emissions.
[158]8Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadRenewable energy transition in Akhnoor, India: feasible PV-diesel system, economic, technical viability.
[159]840Solar PV/Wind/Generator/Fuel Cell/BatteryPort/Passenger ship LoadHESs for maritime transport: economic, technical, emission analysis, cost-effective, eco-friendly options.
[160]1814Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorEducational InstituteGrid-connected, standalone systems for educational institute: HOMER Pro, grid-connected hybrid most suitable for sustainable power.
[161]1.75Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Commercial LoadStandalone solar PV for Nigerian SMEs: long-term savings, environmental benefits over gasoline generators.
[162]7.72Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid renewable energy systems for remote areas: simulations, demand-side management, effective remote solutions.
[163]3445Solar PV/Generator/Fuel CellPassenger ship LoadHybrid power system for ferries with desalination: PV, fuel cells, diesel, high reliability, environmental benefits.
[164]325Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadSolar PV for rural electrification in Uganda: competitive, viable local solution.
[165]100Solar PV/GeneratorEducational InstituteOff-grid hybrid PV/Diesel systems without batteries: cost-effective design, operation over standalone diesel.
[166]2400Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Water Pumping SystemHybrid PV/Diesel water pumping system for irrigation: simulations suggest an optimal configuration for remote area’s water needs, offering a viable solution.
[167]5413Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadNew dispatch strategy for PV/diesel/battery in Iraq: improves cost and emissions, with $4.03M NPC and lower CO2 emissions.
[168]16,395Solar PV/GeneratorIsland Region/Residential LoadHybrid solar PV-diesel system on Karimun Jawa Island, Indonesia: significant fuel cost savings, 20.9% IRR within three years.
[169]36.5Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadNanogrid configurations for Nigerian villages: hybrid solar, wind, diesel systems ensure better battery performance, technical and economic viability.
[170]6563Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid energy system for South African village: compares PV with and without diesel, battery storage, focusing on cost, demand, pollution.
[171]178Solar PV/Biomass/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid energy systems combining PV, biomass, diesel, grid for rural electrification: cost-effective relative to grid extension.
[172]7060Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid wind, photovoltaic, diesel system for Comoros: economic benefits, optimized setup reduces installation costs.
[173]213Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadStandalone hybrid PV/wind/battery system for Bangladesh: sustainable, zero emissions, optimal cost-effectiveness under varying conditions.
[174]722.85Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid photovoltaic/diesel system for rural village: cost-effective, reduces diesel dependency, enhances rural electrification.
[175]28,033Solar PV/Generator/Fuel CellPassenger ship LoadRenewable energy integration on Stockholm cruise ship: reduces emissions, fuel costs with solar PV, PEM fuel cells, diesel generators.
[176]3832Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadStand-alone photovoltaic system for rural Morocco: cost reductions, energy efficiency through optimal design using Homer Pro software (version 3.14.4).
[177]18Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-Diesel mini-grid in Bangladesh: Hybrid PV-Diesel-Battery system has lowest COE, substantial emission reductions.
[178]18Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Telecom TowersSolar-wind hybrid vs. diesel generator for Nepal telecom towers: cost savings, emission reductions with hybrid system.
[179]13.56Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadOff-grid hybrid energy system for rural electrification: hybrid solar PV-battery system optimal, reduces CO2 emissions, 100% renewable.
[180]1150Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadPV-Diesel hybrid microgrids for Canadian Arctic communities: reduces high electricity costs, GHG emissions from diesel generators.
[181]265Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadOn-grid vs. off-grid hybrid systems for Nigerian community: hybrid system offers cost, environmental benefits over diesel-only systems.
[182]83Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Telecom TowersSolar/wind/diesel hybrid systems for Indian telecom towers: cost savings from hybridization using HOMER software.
[183]165.44Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryEducational InstituteCommunity-level microgrid at BMS College, Bengaluru: renewable sources, diesel generator, cost-effective in autonomous, grid-connected modes.
[184]24,000Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadStandalone PV-diesel system for UAE rural electrification: economically viable, reduces CO2 emissions.
[185]894.65Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-Wind-Diesel-Battery microgrid for Zimbabwe: low costs, high renewable fraction in standalone, grid-connected modes.
[186]360Solar PV/Wind/Generator/Battery/BiomassVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid biomass/PV/diesel/battery system for Moroccan village: explores economic viability using HOMER software.
[187]9.422Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-Diesel-Battery systems in Sudan: reduced diesel usage, lower operational costs, decreased carbon emissions.
[188]5Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid solar/wind/diesel system for small village: less costly than conventional grid expansion, both short and long-term.
[189]92Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorIsland Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-Wind-Diesel system for coastal Bangladesh: cost, emissions optimization, high renewable energy use.
[190]Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Water Pumping SystemSolar PV vs. diesel-powered water pumping in Rajasthan, India: solar more economically viable, better IRR, NPV.
[191]840Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid Sea Floating PV and Diesel system for Indonesian resorts: innovative battery arrangements enhance lifespan, stability.
[192]385Solar PV/Generator/BatteryIsland Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-Diesel system in Sebira Island, Indonesia: lower levelized cost, reduced diesel dependency, 70% renewable energy.
[192]76.8Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadMacroeconomic approach to hybrid solar PV/Diesel in South Africa: technical adequacy, economic viability, 70% renewable fraction.
[193]240Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadOff-grid power systems for Jaipur: hybrid solar PV, diesel, battery most effective economically, environmentally.
[194]84Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadPV-Diesel-Battery hybrid microgrid for rural India: reliable, cost-effective energy supply using HOMER software.
[195]56.52Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid solar, wind, diesel systems for Saint Martin’s Island, Bangladesh: cost-effective, efficient remote electrification.
[196]286.03Solar PV/GeneratorHealth FacilityPV integration with diesel at Shifa Hospital, Pakistan: reduces diesel use, emissions, significantly lowers costs.
[197]2500Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadStandalone hybrid system for remote community: PV, wind, battery, diesel, minimizes costs, enhances performance.
[198]3592Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorHealth FacilityHybrid off-grid system for COVID-19 quarantine in Gaza: PV, wind, diesel, cost-effective, reduces emissions.
[199]114.58Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid systems for Spanish climates: industrial, residential sectors, cost reduction, pollution minimization.
[200]37Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Telecom TowersHybrid energy for Nigerian mobile base: PV-diesel-battery, PV-wind-diesel-battery, cost savings, emission reductions.
[201]14.53Solar PV/Biomass/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-biomass system in Iran: minimizes net present cost, mitigates CO2 emissions compared to coal-based power.
[202]16Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV/wind/diesel system in Winnipeg: cost-effective, reduces emissions, optimal configuration identified.
[203]332.97Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid energy for Andhra Pradesh village: economic efficiency, high renewable fraction, emissions reduction.
[204]240Solar PV/Generator/Pumped Hydro StorageVillage Region/Water Pumping SystemMulti-objective framework for off-grid PV/diesel/pumped hydro storage: cost, power supply probability optimized.
[205]110Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid wind/PV/diesel/battery for Bushehr, Iran: reduces CO2 emissions, improves fuel consumption, high renewable penetration.
[206]38Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-diesel-battery for Malaysian ecotourism: supports 37 family units, reduces CO2 emissions, lowers costs.
[207]5760Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid microgrid for rural area: wind/solar/battery/diesel, optimized for meteorological variability, efficient, economic.
[208]15.068Solar PV/Generator/BatteryHealth FacilityHybrid PV/diesel/battery for Nigerian healthcare: cost-effective, reduces diesel consumption, increases solar capacity.
[209]563.5Solar PV/Generator/BatterySubtropical Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV/diesel/battery for residential areas: reduces diesel reliance, economical, environmentally friendly.
[210]7.3Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadSolar power tower, PV, wind turbine, diesel generator: solar options most cost-effective for community power.
[211]60Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid microgrids using spider monkey optimization: PV, wind, battery, diesel, cost-effective, reliable power supply.
[212]11,000Solar PV/GeneratorEducational InstituteSolar integration at Silliman University: cost-effective solar-diesel-grid configurations, economic impact of diesel prices.
[213]53Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Water Pumping SystemSolar PV vs. diesel for Saudi water pumping: environmentally friendlier, cost-competitive, high solar irradiation.
[214]Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-battery-diesel for Omavovwe, Nigeria: reduces CO2 emissions, cost savings on carbon taxes.
[215]6000Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadOff-grid hybrid system for village: PV, wind, diesel, 50% renewable scenario optimal.
[216]84.44Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Water Pumping SystemHybrid PV and diesel for San Joaquin Valley: economical irrigation, residential energy, PV/diesel/battery most viable.
[217]37.4Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Tracking SystemPV tracking techniques for African household: fixed-tilt, horizontal, vertical, dual-axis, cost-effective solar tracking.
[218]15,000Solar PV/Generator/BatteryEducational InstituteHybrid microgrid for Najran Industrial Institute: architectural design, energy planning, cost, CO2 reduction.
[219]3000Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential Load/Commercial LoadHybrid PV/diesel/battery for Kuakata, Bangladesh: optimized components, CO2 reduction, economic outcomes.
[220]33,035Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid microgrid for Tamil Nadu village: optimal sizing, cost-efficiency, emissions reduction.
[221]233.1Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Tracking SystemHybrid PV/diesel/battery for South Khorasan, Iran: energy reliability, cost reduction, vertical axis tracker best.
[222]5500Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadOff-grid electrification in Namibia: solar home systems vs. centralized hybrid microgrids, cost-effective, sustainable.
[223]346.43Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorVillage Region/Tracking SystemStandalone hybrid for Kalpeni Island, India: optimal energy cost, emissions, solar/diesel with vertical tracking best.
[224]57.7Solar PV/Generator/BatteryIsland Region/Residential LoadHybrid microgrid for Gilutongan Island, Philippines: PV, diesel, wind, battery, cost, environmental balance.
[225]221.4Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BiomassVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid systems for Kukri Mukri Island, Bangladesh: PV, wind, diesel, biomass, cost-effective, sustainable.
[226]484.729Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Fanisua, Nigeria: optimized, significant CO2 savings, promising alternative.
[227]3375Solar PV/Hydro/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV/hydro/diesel/battery for Nigeria: PV, hydro, diesel, battery, low cost, CO2 reduction.
[228]9051Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-diesel energy for village: consumer-prosumer trading, cost reductions, HOMER optimization.
[229]10Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid solar, wind, diesel, battery for Coimbatore: economic, technological feasibility, minimized energy costs.
[230]991.2Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-battery-diesel for West Papua dockyard: reduces COE, CO2 emissions, cost-effective.
[231]Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid microgrid for Kanur, Maharashtra: solar, wind, diesel, battery, lowest net present cost, COE.
[232]469Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Commercial LoadHybrid PV-diesel-battery for Hassi R’mel, Algeria: maximizes PV use, reduces diesel reliance, emissions.
[233]240,000Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential Load10 MW microgrid with solar, wind, diesel, battery: minimizes costs, emissions, Green Island concept.
[234]197.3Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryEducational InstituteHybrid systems for Nigerian universities: grid-connected PV dominant, off-grid PV, wind, diesel mix.
[235]628.7048Solar PV/Generator/BatteryHealth FacilityMicrogrid for Zipline health facility: PV, diesel, battery, grid, energy security, cost savings.
[236]199.5Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Turtuk village, India: economically viable, significant CO2 reduction.
[237]19.2Solar PV/GeneratorIsland Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-diesel for remote areas: battery banks stabilize power, economic viability emphasized.
[238]960Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadDemand response for HRES: reduces economic, environmental metrics in remote Indian region.
[239]2160Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Electric Vehicle Charging Stations LoadHybrid generation for Ethiopian EV charging stations: ZnBr battery, PV, diesel, lowest costs, sustainability.
[240]1659.52Solar PV/Wind/Generator/Battery/BiogasVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Xuzhou, China: cost-effective, environmentally friendly, CO2 reduction.
[241]89.91Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Ecuador: economically viable under certain fuel prices, solar radiation impact.
[242]872Solar PV/GeneratorEducational InstituteGrid-connected HRES: minimizes energy cost, utility grid interactions.
[243]2898.32Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for rural Sarawak: cost-effective, lower fuel dependency, traditional diesel alternative.
[244]489.23Solar PV/GeneratorIsland Region/Residential LoadTechno-economic study of PV-Diesel in Miangas Island, Indonesia: meets energy demands efficiently.
[245]3076.22Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Myanmar: economically feasible, environmental benefits, optimized design.
[246]13.1Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Balochistan homes: reduces shortages, economic impacts from hub height adjustments.
[247]166Solar PV/Hydro/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid power for Cox’s Bazar: hydro, PV, wind, battery, diesel, affordable, reliable, CO2 reduction.
[248]94Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Nigerian agriculture: irrigation, cold storage, solar irradiance, diesel prices impact.
[249]86Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV, battery, diesel for Myanmar: cost-effective, sustainable village electrification, solar potential.
[250]288.93Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Nigeria: cost-effective, reduces CO2, enhances energy security, sustainability.
[251]6Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHRES for Saharan community: load following, cycle charging, cost-effective, emissions, renewable integration.
[252]480Solar PV/GeneratorIsland Region/Residential LoadHybrid solar-diesel power plant: extends supply, economically feasible, reduces energy costs.
[253]289,440Solar PV/Hydro/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Nigeria: lower energy costs, viable off-grid electrification alternative.
[254]12Solar PV/Hydro/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Water Pumping SystemHRES for Egypt water pumping: optimal sizing, cost-effective, meets energy demands.
[255]145Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Iraq village: reduces CO2, sensitive to environmental, operational conditions.
[256]32.962Solar PV/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadHRES for Saudi Arabia: technical, economic analysis, PV penetration, fuel savings, emissions.
[257]266Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Nigerian village: economically viable, replaces diesel generators, HOMER optimization.
[258]11.27Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid photovoltaic/diesel for Lubumbashi: optimizes costs, environmental impact.
[259]3294Solar PV/Wind/Generator/Fuel Cell/BatteryIndustrial MachineMicrogrid for Tehran industrial estate: CNC machines, distributed energy resources, economic, environmental impacts.
[260]22Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadHRES for Bizerte, Tunisia: simulates, optimizes cost, emission reductions.
[261]101,940Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorVillage RegionHybrid configurations for Nigerian zones: net present costs, COE, renewable fraction analysis.
[262]778.25Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadStandalone hybrid system for South Sudan: cost, renewable integration optimized.
[263]7.72Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid renewable energy for Balochistan: PV, wind, geothermal, diesel, cost-effective, reliable.
[264]255Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid renewable for Egyptian farm irrigation: HOMER, PVSYST, economic, environmental benefits.
[265]120,000Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid renewable for Abu Dhabi: PV, wind, battery, diesel, cost, CO2 reduction.
[266]5Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorCity Region/Residential LoadUrban energy management for smart cities: wind, solar, HOMER, techno-economic feasibility, urban trends.
[267]90.27Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Malawi villages: PV, wind, diesel, battery, economically infeasible.
[268]14,792Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadPV integration with diesel grid for Lebanese village: reduces diesel consumption, costs, HOMER analysis.
[269]9126.49Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryIsland Region/Residential LoadHRES for Malaysian resort: solar, wind, diesel, battery, cost savings, emission reductions.
[270]14,364Solar PV/GeneratorVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Cambodia: economical, environmentally friendly rural electrification.
[271]675.78Solar PV/Generator/BiogasVillage Region/Residential LoadHRES for Uttarakhand: cost-effective, sustainable configurations.
[272]7200Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryIsland Region/Residential LoadHRES for Kish Island: optimizes costs, efficiency, sensitivity analyses.
[273]898Solar PV/Wind/Hydro/Generator/Battery/BiomassCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid renewable for remote areas: PV, wind, diesel, biomass, cost, emissions, renewable factor.
[274]11.477Solar PV/Generator/BatteryHealth FacilityHybrid PV-diesel-battery for Nigerian health facility: efficient, economical power for off-grid healthcare.
[275]165.24Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadStandalone hybrid power for Nigeria: affordable, reliable electricity, HOMER analysis.
[276]9.24Solar PV/Wind/Generator/BatteryHealth FacilityHybrid renewable for Nigerian healthcare: economic effects of fuel subsidy removal, PV/diesel/battery system.
[277]145Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV/diesel/battery with dispatch strategy: cost, emission reductions, battery, diesel price sensitivity.
[278]7Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadSolar photovoltaic configurations for rural electrification: irrigation, farmhouses, PV/battery/diesel most economical, reliable.
[279]47Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-diesel-battery for Algeria: PSO, ε-constraint methods reduce costs, emissions, 93% renewable.
[280]687.1Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-Diesel-Battery for Benin: reduces battery needs, CO2 emissions, reliable remote power.
[281]10Solar PV/Generator/BatteryVillage Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-Diesel-Battery for Turkish summer houses: economical, 79% renewable, reduces emissions.
[282]2300Solar PV/Generator/BatteryCity Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV/diesel/battery for Harbin: cost-effective, sustainable, reduced emissions, 57% renewable fraction.
[283]92Solar PV/Wind/GeneratorIsland Region/Residential LoadHybrid PV-wind-diesel for coastal Bangladesh: high electricity demand, GHG reduction, local climate suitability.
Table 8. Teechnoeconiomic Parameters.
Table 8. Teechnoeconiomic Parameters.
ValueTotal Load Per Day (kWh/Day)Diesel Generator Capacity (kW)Initial Investment Costs of Diesel Generator ($)O&M Costs of Diesel Generator ($)Replacement Costs of Diesel Generator ($)Operational Lifespan of Diesel Generator (Hours)Total Net Present Cost of Diesel Generator in Dollars ($)
Min.0.701.80894.00205.00-4323.001286.20
Ave.7520.36246.5089,338.72593,760.7067,770.6414,479.171,119,877.46
Max.351,430.003000.00330,000.004,909,328.00376,571.0035,000.006,536,420.00
Table 10. Solar PV techno-economic analysis results.
Table 10. Solar PV techno-economic analysis results.
ValueTotal Load Per Day (kWh/Day)Solar PV Capacity (kW)Initial Investment Costs of Solar PV ($)O&M Costs of Solar PV ($)Replacement Costs of Solar PV ($)Operational Lifespan of Solar PV (Years)Total annual costs of Solar PV in Dollars ($)
Min.0.706.00735.59--20.0059,443.00
Ave.7520.36328.68207,276.83576,137.00183.9022.501,220,682.46
Max.351,430.001000.00755,000.002,301,005.00735.5925.003,621,005.00
Table 11. Parameters of Proposed Solar PV Linear Regression Models.
Table 11. Parameters of Proposed Solar PV Linear Regression Models.
Dependable VariableIndependent VariablesCoefficientt Statp-ValueR Square
Solar PV Capacity (kW)0.0024156.633.1760.1940.910
1.0170.495
Initial Investment Costs of Solar PV ($)1.88195,890.743.9260.1590.939
0.9860.505
O&M Costs of Solar PV ($)5.815263,323.524.3840.1430.951
0.9780.507
Replacement Costs of Solar PV ($)0.001984.044.3930.1420.951
0.9780.507
Operational Lifespan of Solar PV (Years)1.0899 × 10−521.201.8090.3210.766
17.3400.037
Total Annual Costs of Solar PV in Dollars ($)8.625601,698.993.1580.1950.909
1.0860.474
Table 12. Battery Techno-economic Analysis.
Table 12. Battery Techno-economic Analysis.
ValueTotal Load Per Day (kWh/Day)Battery Capacity (kWh)Battery Capital Cost ($)Battery O&M Cost ($)Battery Replacement Cost ($)
Min.0.706.000.590.49735.59
Ave.7520.36328.680.690.64207,276.83
Max.351,430.001000.000.800.79755,000.00
Table 13. Parameters of proposed Battery System Linear Regression Models.
Table 13. Parameters of proposed Battery System Linear Regression Models.
Dependable VariableIndependent VariablesCoefficientt Statp-ValueR Square
Battery Capacity (kWh)0.00334224.963.0510.2020.903
1.0130.496
Battery Capital Cost ($)0.700354,935.182.9100.2110.894
1.1250.463
Battery O&M Cost ($)1.44393,293.303.0710.2000.904
0.9780.507
Battery Replacement Cost ($)2.579172,166.033.0720.2000.904
1.0100.497
Table 14. Converter techno-economic analysis results.
Table 14. Converter techno-economic analysis results.
ValueTotal Load Per Day (kWh/Day)Converter Capacity (kW)Converter Capital Cost ($)Converter Operating Cost ($)Converter Replacement Cost ($)Converter Net Present Cost ($)
Min.0.706.000.590.49735.59-
Ave.7520.36328.680.690.64207,276.83576,137.00
Max.351,430.001000.000.800.79755,000.002,301,005.00
Table 15. Parameters of Proposed Converter System Linear Regression Models.
Table 15. Parameters of Proposed Converter System Linear Regression Models.
Dependable VariableIndependent VariablesCoefficientt Statp-ValueR Square
Converter Capacity (kW)0.00457401.862.3170.2590.843
1.0030.499
Converter Capital Cost ($)0.968107,118.511.8090.3210.766
0.9870.504
Converter Operating Cost ($)0.21723,849.901.8090.3210.766
0.9780.507
Converter Replacement Cost ($)0.64871,414.721.8090.3210.766
0.9830.506
Converter Net Present Cost ($)1.458250,410.641.8090.3210.766
1.5310.368
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Thango, B.A.; Obokoh, L. Techno-Economic Analysis of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Power Interruptions: A Systematic Review. Eng 2024, 5, 2108-2156. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5030112

AMA Style

Thango BA, Obokoh L. Techno-Economic Analysis of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Power Interruptions: A Systematic Review. Eng. 2024; 5(3):2108-2156. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5030112

Chicago/Turabian Style

Thango, Bonginkosi A., and Lawrence Obokoh. 2024. "Techno-Economic Analysis of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Power Interruptions: A Systematic Review" Eng 5, no. 3: 2108-2156. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5030112

APA Style

Thango, B. A., & Obokoh, L. (2024). Techno-Economic Analysis of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Power Interruptions: A Systematic Review. Eng, 5(3), 2108-2156. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5030112

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