Seaweed Consumption Practices in Coastal Communities of Tawi-Tawi, Philippines

Abstract

Seaweeds represent a vital yet often understudied component of the diet and cultural heritage of many coastal communities globally. This study investigated seaweed consumption practices in coastal communities of Tawi-Tawi, Philippines, through one-to-one interviews (n = 280) and focus group discussions (n = 7). The study revealed that nearly all (99%) of the population consumes seaweeds, with women comprising the majority of consumers who have done so since childhood (68% female vs. 32% male). These consumers were predominantly married (79%), within the 21–40 age group (53%), with families of 5–7 members (43%), practicing Islam (97%), and belonging to the Sama tribe (71%). A significant portion (48%) had resided in the area for 21–30 years, attained elementary to high school education (66%), and had a monthly income ranging from 1000 to 10,000 Philippine pesos (72%). Seaweed consumption was a family-wide practice (88%), including children, who typically started around 4–8 years old (61%), driven by perceived nutritional benefits (43%), preferred flavor (80%), affordability (19%), ease of preparation (33%), and cultural integration (23%). The primary edible seaweeds identified were Kappaphycus alvarezii (63%), K. striatus (58%), Kappaphycus spp. (47%), Eucheuma denticulatum (57%), Caulerpa lentillifera (64%), Caulerpa spp. (51%), C. cf. macrodisca ecad corynephora (45%), C. racemosa (30%), and Solieria robusta (49%), with less frequent consumption of K. malesianus (8%), Chaetomorpha crassa (3%), Gracilaria spp. (0.72%), and Hydroclathrus clathratus (0.36%). Specific plant parts were preferred for certain species, and preparation predominantly involved raw (75%) or cooked (77%) salads with spices, primarily prepared by mothers (72%). Consumers generally avoided seaweeds showing signs of ice-ice disease (95%), pale coloration (91%), or epiphyte infestation (84%). Consumption frequency was typically 1–3 times per week (45%), with knowledge largely passed down through generations (95%). Seaweed salads were primarily consumed as a viand (92%) at home (97%), with locals perceiving seaweed consumption as contributing to a healthy diet (40%) and overall well-being [e.g., aiding hunger (76%), improving digestion (20%), preventing obesity (14%), and aiding brain development (3%)]. The study’s findings emphasize the significant yet often overlooked role of seaweeds in the food systems and cultural heritage of Tawi-Tawi’s coastal communities. Future efforts should prioritize the sustainable management of wild resources, explore the cultivation of diverse edible species, and enhance nutritional awareness. Further research into traditional seaweed knowledge holds broader value.

1. Introduction

Seaweeds, a remarkably diverse group of marine algae, have garnered considerable interest, primarily due to their long-standing role as human food [1,2,3] and their expanding applications across various sectors [4,5]. Beyond their traditional culinary uses, their complex biochemical composition [6]—rich in valuable polysaccharides [7], proteins [8], vitamins [9], and minerals [10]—positions them as crucial components in the functional food industry [11]. In food science, seaweeds serve not only as a nutritional source but also as functional ingredients, acting as gelling agents [12], thickeners [13], and stabilizers [14,15], thereby enhancing both the texture and nutritional profile of food products [16,17]. Furthermore, the presence of bioactive compounds, including potent antioxidants [18,19] and anti-inflammatory agents [20], has linked seaweed consumption to potential health benefits, suggesting a role in mitigating chronic diseases [21,22]. The growing global emphasis on sustainable and plant-based diets [23] has further fueled the exploration of seaweeds as vital ingredients in health-promoting products, underscoring their potential in addressing nutritional deficiencies and enhancing overall well-being [24,25]. Consequently, seaweeds are now incorporated into diverse culinary preparations, ranging from fresh salads and hearty soups to convenient snack foods, highlighting their versatility and nutritional significance [26].

The consumption of seaweeds is deeply rooted in the culinary traditions and dietary habits of many coastal communities, particularly in East Asian nations, such as Japan, China, and Korea [27,28,29]. In these regions, species, like Laminaria japonica and Undaria pinnatifida, are not only valued for their distinct flavors and nutritional attributes but are also integral to cultural identity. For instance, a study in Japan [30] reported an average daily consumption of 5.5 g of dry seaweed, illustrating its status as a fundamental dietary component. In contrast, while historically absent from traditional European and North American diets, seaweeds are gaining traction in these regions, driven by increasing trends in veganism, vegetarianism, and health-conscious eating, underpinning their potential as functional food ingredients [31,32,33,34,35]. Notably, recent surveys indicate a more rapid increase in seaweed consumption in Australia, with 46.3% of respondents reporting consumption in the past three months, potentially linked to the burgeoning commercial seaweed farming sector in the country [36,37]. Although sometimes perceived as a “trendy” food associated with enhanced social image [38,39], these perceptions and consumption patterns exhibit significant variation across different cultural and regional contexts. In the Philippines, seaweed consumption is notably prevalent within coastal communities, including Tawi-Tawi, Ilocos Norte, eastern Sorsogon, and eastern Camarines Sur, underscoring the close relationship between local culinary practices, cultural heritage, and economic activities tied to marine resources [2,40,41,42]. Dumilag [2] documented seven edible seaweed species sold in the local public market of Tawi-Tawi, including Caulerpa lentillifera, C. cf. macrodisca ecad corynephora, C. cf. racemosa, Kappaphycus alvarezii, K. striatus, Eucheuma denticulatum, and Solieria robusta, all playing a vital role in local cuisine and contributing significantly to the regional economy. Furthermore, Dumilag & Javier [41] identified 34 seaweed species traditionally used medicinally for 8 types of ailments in Ilocos Norte, with nearly 80% also being edible; notably, C. racemosa was the most commonly used seaweed for relieving coughs or asthma. Another study by Dumilag et al. [40] in eastern Sorsogon identified 12 seaweed species with both culinary and medicinal importance, with 10 species used as food and 3 therapeutically. The most significant seaweeds in this context include C. chemnitzia and Gelidiella acerosa, while C. racemosa was the least cited species. Additionally, Chondria armata and Digenea simplex are reported to have anti-helminthic properties, whereas C. chemnitzia is used to treat goiter. In eastern Camarines Sur, locals are familiar with the food uses of five seaweed species, including Acanthophora spicifera, C. lentillifera, C. racemosa, G. acerosa, and K. alvarezii, with C. lentillifera and C. racemosa believed to have medicinal properties for treating digestive and glandular diseases. Among these, Caulerpa species appear to be the most ethnobotanically significant, while the carrageenan-producing species K. alvarezii is cultivated for livelihood purposes [42]. Thus, seaweed consumption in these Philippine coastal communities extends beyond nutritional and medicinal applications, playing a crucial role in supporting local economic well-being.

Tawi-Tawi, situated in the southernmost archipelago of the Philippines, boasts a long history of seaweed commercialization, marked by the establishment of the world’s first successful eucheumatoid seaweed farm in 1969 [43]. The local population, known as Tawi-Tawians, has deeply integrated seaweed into their cultural cuisine, effectively utilizing the abundant resources available in local public markets [2]. Seaweed consumption is prevalent among Tawi-Tawians [3], with vendors in local markets consistently meeting daily demand by offering seaweeds in both raw and ready-to-eat preparations, in addition to extracting carrageenan from Kappaphycus species [44]. The preparation of these seafood delicacies is often simple, with fresh seaweeds, like Caulerpa, requiring only a quick rinse before consumption [40]. Other seaweeds are frequently transformed into flavorful salads or pickled dishes through parboiling and the addition of a blend of local spices and ingredients, including ginger, tomato, onion, and vinegar [40,42]. Despite the significant role of seaweed in the local diet, a notable gap remains in understanding the community’s perceptions and behaviors regarding its utilization, highlighting the need for further research and education on the multifaceted benefits of seaweed. This study aims to assess the seaweed consumption practices in the coastal communities of Tawi-Tawi, Philippines. Specifically, it seeks to determine the following: (i) the sociodemographic characteristics of seaweed consumers, (ii) their practices and behaviors related to seaweed consumption, and (iii) their perspectives on the potential benefits and implications of incorporating seaweed into their diet.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Sites

The study was conducted in different coastal municipalities of Tawi-Tawi, Philippines, such as Bongao, Panglima Sugala, Simunul, Sitangkai, Sibutu, Tandubas, and South Ubian (Figure 1). These areas are known for long-term consumption of seaweeds for decades in the province.

2.2. Interview

A structured questionnaire was designed to investigate the practices and perspectives of coastal communities regarding seaweed consumption. Prior to its deployment, key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted to inform the questionnaire’s content and structure. Informants for the KIIs were purposively selected based on their extensive experience with seaweed consumption (defined as over 50 years). The insights gained from these interviews were directly incorporated into the development of the household survey instrument. This questionnaire comprised three main sections, as follows: (i) seaweed consumers’ sociodemographic profiles, (ii) practices and behaviors towards consuming seaweeds, and (iii) perspectives on the benefits of consuming seaweeds. Data collection involved one-to-one interviews with a target sample of 280 seaweed consumers across various municipalities within the study area. Given the absence of a comprehensive list of coastal households, a random sampling technique was employed to ensure randomness. Researchers began by randomly selecting starting points within the communities. From these points, they systematically visited every third to fifth stilt house along a predefined path, such as following the coastline. If seaweed consumers were present and willing, they were invited to participate. This method aimed to minimize bias and achieve a representative sample, and the target of 280 respondents was successfully met.

2.3. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

To complement individual interview data and explore diverse perspectives on seaweed consumption practices within coastal communities, seven focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted, one in each municipality. Participants (n = 10 per FGD) were purposively selected based on availability and had not participated in the preceding household survey. A trained facilitator guided each discussion, informed by established methodologies [45,46]. The FGDs aimed to provide deeper insights into community practices and perspectives, building upon information gathered during individual interviews.

2.4. Data Analysis

Quantitative data from the household surveys were coded and entered into a statistical software package (Microsoft Excel 2025) for analysis. Descriptive statistics (e.g., means, frequencies, percentages) were used to summarize the sociodemographic profiles, consumption practices, and perceived benefits of seaweed consumption. Qualitative data from the FGDs were transcribed verbatim and subjected to thematic analysis [47] to identify recurring patterns, key themes, and nuanced perspectives related to seaweed consumption within the coastal communities. The qualitative findings were used to support and provide context to the quantitative results, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the research questions.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Sociodemographic Profiles of Seaweed Consumers

The sociodemographic profiles of the respondents (seaweed consumers) are shown in

Table 1. Sociodemographic profiles of seaweed consumers (n = 280).

A. Gender	No. of Consumers	% Frequency
Male	89	31.79
Female	191	68.21
B. Age
10–20	14	5.00
21–30	60	21.43
31–40	88	31.43
41–50	57	20.36
51–60	33	11.79
61–70	28	10.00
C. Marital status
Single	34	12.14
Married	220	78.57
Widow	18	6.43
Separate	8	2.86
D. Family size
2–4	95	33.93
5–7	119	42.50
8–10	52	18.57
11–13	9	3.21
14–16	4	1.43
17–19	1	0.36
E. Religion
Islam	271	96.79
Christian	8	2.86
No religion	1	0.36
F. Ethnicity
Sama-Daleya	200	71.43
Sama-Dilaut (Badjao)	5	1.79
Tausug	66	23.57
Bisaya	9	3.21
G. Years of residence
<1	2	0.71
1–5	36	12.86
6–10	27	9.64
11–15	28	10.00
16–20	33	11.79
21–25	35	12.50
26–30	98	35.00
31>	21	7.50
H. Highest educational attainment
Elementary	96	34.29
High school	88	31.43
College	72	25.71
Graduate (MS/PhD)	2	0.71
No education	22	7.86
I. Estimated monthly income (PHP)
<1000	28	10.00
1000–5000	135	48.21
6000–10,000	68	24.29
11,000–15,000	23	8.21
16,000–20,000	10	3.57
21,000–25,000	8	2.86
26,000>	8	2.86

. Among the 280 selected respondents of the present study, 68.21% were female, while males represented 31.79% of the sample (Table 1A). The significant gender disparity observed, with a strong female majority, aligns with findings in other studies that suggest women often play a dominant role in household food-related decisions and consumption in many Southeast Asian communities [48] and other developed countries [49]. This prevalence of female consumers, also reflected in the dominance of women selling raw edible seaweeds in the market [2], suggests that marketing strategies and product development may benefit from being tailored to resonate with this key demographic.

Regarding age distribution (Table 1B), the largest segment of seaweed consumers (31.43%) was aged 31–40, followed by the 21–30 (21.43%), and 41–50 (20.36%) age groups. Smaller percentages were observed in the 51–60 (11.79%), 61–70 (10%), and 10–20 (5%) categories. This prominent consumption within the middle-aged population (30–40 years) can primarily be attributed to a heightened focus on preventative health and maintaining vitality, as individuals in their 30s and 40s experience a natural slowing of their metabolism [50]. Seaweed, with its recognized health benefits related to heart health and bone density [51], becomes particularly appealing to this demographic as they become more proactive about long-term well-being [50]. This aligns with broader research indicating that middle-aged adults tend to be more aware of lifestyle factors influencing their health [52].

Table 1C,D show the marital status and family size. Our findings suggest a strong association between seaweed consumption and the family context. This is particularly evident given that the vast majority of our respondents were married (78.57%) and reported an average household size of 5–7 family members (42.50%). Participants frequently reported consuming seaweed as part of family meals, which aligns with the notion that household needs and collective preferences significantly influence purchasing decisions and consumption habits [53]. The observed limited consumption among singles (12.14%), while reflecting their smaller representation in our sample, further supports the idea that a shared living environment often facilitates seaweed intake. The predominance of married participants in our study may have influenced these observed family-centric consumption patterns. This family-centric behavior likely also contributes to the lower percentages observed in the 10–20 age group (5%), as younger individuals’ dietary habits are often shaped by household meal preparation and family traditions.

Regarding religion (Table 1E), Islam was the predominant faith among the respondents (96.79%), followed by Christianity (2.86%), with a small percentage reporting no religion (0.36%). This demographic underscores that the study’s findings are primarily representation of a predominantly Muslim community. In terms of ethnicity (Table 1F), the majority belonged to the Sama-Daleya group (71.43%), with smaller representations from Tausug (23.57%), Bisaya (3.21%), and Sama-Dilaut (Badjao) (1.79%). The dominance of these ethnic groups highlights the significant cultural context surrounding seaweed consumption in this community. This aligns with observations in Zamboanga City (Philippines), where Sama and Tausug people utilize and harvest edible seaweeds [54], and the broader understanding that food choices are often closely linked to cultural practices [55]. This cultural backdrop is crucial for comprehending how seaweed is accepted and integrated into local food traditions.

Regarding the length of residency (Table 1G), the largest proportion of respondents (35%) had lived in the area for 26–30 years, followed by 1–5 years (12.86%), 21–25 years (12.50%), 16–20 years (11.79%), 11–15 years (10%), 6–10 years (9.64%), over 31 years (7.50%), and less than 1 year (0.71%). The extended residency of a significant majority suggests a stable community with well-established food practices. This long-term presence implies that seaweed consumption is likely a deeply rooted aspect of the local diet, rather than a recent dietary addition. Historical records indicate that various edible seaweeds have been consumed throughout the Philippines since at least 1961 [56].

The educational attainment data (Table 1H), with the highest percentages in elementary (34.29%) and high school levels (31.43%), followed by a considerable proportion with college education (25.71%), suggests a generally literate population. This level of literacy likely contributes to an awareness of seaweed and its potential benefits. However, the presence of a segment with no formal education (7.86%) highlights the need for diverse communication strategies regarding seaweed-related information.

Concerning socioeconomic status (Table 1I), the majority of respondents reported estimated monthly earnings ranging from PHP 1000 to PHP 5000 (48.21%), followed by PHP 6000 to PHP 10,000 (24.29%). Smaller percentages earned below PHP 1000 (10%), PHP 11,000 to PHP 15,000 (8.21%), PHP 16,000 to PHP 20,000 (3.57%), and PHP 21,000 to PHP 25,000 and above PHP 26,000 (both 2.86%). This suggests that most coastal communities in Tawi-Tawi live below the poverty line threshold [57]. This socioeconomic reality underscores the importance of affordability and accessibility in ensuring continued seaweed consumption within the community. Understanding the economic capacity of the consumers is crucial for developing sustainable and inclusive seaweed-related industries and policies [58]. Coastal communities, particularly those below the poverty line, often have limited income and fewer economic opportunities [59]. In such situations, freely available food sources, such as edible seaweeds, become crucial.

3.2. Practices and Behavior of Coastal Communities in Consuming Seaweeds

Table 2. Practices and behavior of coastal communities in consuming seaweeds.

A. Seaweed Consumer	No. of Consumers	% Frequency
Yes	277	98.93
No	3	1.07
B. Drivers for consuming seaweeds
Nutritious/healthy diet	120	43.32
Excellent flavor	222	80.14
Easy to prepare	91	32.85
Cheap	54	19.49
Part of culture	63	22.74
Can cure diseases	35	12.64
C. Household seaweed consumption
All family members	244	88.09
Parents only	32	11.55
Mother only	0	0.00
Father only	0	0.00
Children only	1	0.36
D. Age of children when they started consuming seaweeds
1–3	31	11.19
4–5	92	33.21
6–8	76	27.43
9–11	25	9.03
12–14	14	5.05
15>	10	3.61
Children do not consume	3	1.08
No children in the household	26	9.39
E. Seaweed species consumed
Kappaphycus alvarezii	174	62.82
K. striatus	159	57.40
K. malesianus	22	7.94
Kappaphycus spp.	129	46.57
Eucheuma denticulatum	157	56.68
Caulerpa lentillifera	176	63.54
C. cf. macrodisca ecad corynephora	126	45.49
C. racemosa	83	29.96
Caulerpa spp.	140	50.54
Solieria robusta	135	48.74
Chaetomorpha crassa	8	2.88
Gracilaria spp.	2	0.72
Hydroclathrus clathratus	1	0.36
F. Edible part of seaweeds
Kappaphycus spp.
Whole	126	45.49
Small and soft branches (apical part)	151	54.59
Eucheuma denticulatum
Whole	81	50.31
Small and soft branches (apical part)	80	49.69
Caulerpa spp.
Whole including stolon	119	45.08
Ramuli regions only (excluding stolon)	145	54.92
Solieria robusta
Whole	104	75.36
Small and soft branches (apical part)	34	24.64
Other species (C. crassa, H. clathratus, Gracilaria spp.)
Whole	11	100.00
Small and soft branches (apical part)	0	0.00
G. Consuming ice-ice disease-infected seaweeds
No	262	94.59
Yes	15	5.41
H. Consuming unhealthy, pale in color seaweeds (leading to ice-ice disease)
No	252	90.97
Yes	25	9.03
I. Consuming epiphyte-infected seaweeds
No	232	83.75
Yes	45	16.25
J. Source preference
Raw/alive	120	43.32
Cooked and/or prepared (salad form)	110	39.71
Both, depends on the situation	47	16.97
K. Preparation preference
Raw (direct eating with no spices)	91	32.85
Raw as salad (cleaned and prepared with spices)	207	74.73
Cooked (boiled or blanched) then prepared with spices as seaweed salad	213	76.90
L. Shelf-life of prepared seaweed salads
Kappaphycus/Eucheuma salad
Few hours	198	71.48
1–2 days	77	27.80
3–4 days	2	0.72
Caulerpa salad
Few hours	231	86.52
1–2 days	36	13.48
Solieria salad
Few hours	129	71.27
1–2 days	60	27.62
3–4 days	2	1.10
Chaetomorpha/Gracilaria/Hydroclathrus salad
Few hours	11	100.00
M. Process seaweeds for later consumption
No	271	97.83
Yes (Pickled in bottle)	6	2.17
N. Frequency of consumption
Daily	15	5.42
Once a week	91	32.85
2–3 times a week	34	12.27
Once a month	112	40.43
2×–3× a month	18	6.50
Once a year	7	2.53
O. Source of seaweed
Wild	150	54.51
Farmed	69	24.91
Market with unknown source	127	45.85
P. Family member responsible for seaweed salad preparation
Mother	198	71.48
Father	10	3.61
Children	12	4.33
Anyone who is available	57	20.58
Q. Type of seaweed consumption
Main dish (viand)	254	91.70
Dessert	18	6.50
Snacks	27	9.75
Appetizer	89	32.13
R. Place/event where seaweeds are normally consumed
House/home	269	97.11
Beach/picnic	228	82.31
During travel	20	7.22
Other events (Ramadan, wedding, graduation)	42	15.16
S. Start of consuming seaweeds
Childhood	220	79.42
Recently (<5 years)	19	6.86
Long time (>10 yrs)	38	13.72
T. Source of knowledge in consuming seaweeds
Family/ancestor	264	95.31
Friends	7	6.86
Relatives	6	2.17

displays the seaweed consumption practices and behaviors within the coastal communities studied. A significant majority of respondents (98.93%) reported regular seaweed consumption, while a small fraction (1.07%) indicated a preference against its consumption (Table 2A). As detailed in Table 2B, the primary reasons cited for seaweed consumption included its appealing flavor (80.14%), high nutritional content beneficial for a healthy diet (43.32%), ease and simplicity of preparation (32.85%), strong cultural significance (22.74%), affordability (19.49%), and the perceived belief in its medicinal properties for common ailments (12.64%). This high prevalence of seaweed consumption among the studied coastal communities underscores the integral role of seaweeds in their local dietary practices, a pattern consistent with observations in other coastal populations worldwide [49,60,61]. The key motivating factors identified—palatability, nutritional value, ease of preparation, and cultural attachment—resonate with drivers reported in the existing literature on seaweed consumption [49,62]. Qualitative data from our FGDs further revealed that edible seaweeds constitute a substantial component of the local diet in Tawi-Tawi’s coastal communities, particularly for residents in stilt houses with limited access to terrestrial vegetables, where seaweeds serve as a readily accessible dietary alternative. Seaweeds have been a part of the Filipino diet since the 1960s [2,40,41,42,56]. Globally, seaweeds have been consumed for centuries in many coastal countries, especially in Asia, such as Japan [30], Korea [63], Malaysia [64], Indonesia [65], and Thailand [66]. Their consumption is also widespread in other regions, including the Americas [60], Australia [49], and Europe [61,67]. In Western countries, the growing trend of seaweed consumption is driven by increased awareness of its health and environmental benefits, alongside the rising demand for sustainable and alternative food sources [67,68].

Among families consuming seaweed, it was a common practice known to most members (88.09%), while in 11.91% of families, only parents and children consumed it (Table 2C). The majority of children (85.92%) began consuming seaweed between 1 and 14 years old, with a smaller proportion (3.61%) starting at 15 years or older. Households without children constituted 9.39% of the sample, and a small fraction of children (1.08%) did not consume seaweed (Table 2D). This early introduction of seaweed to children and the familial transmission of knowledge, also observed in seaweed farming [69], underscores the deeply ingrained nature of this practice. This aligns with anthropological research on foodways and cultural heritage in coastal regions, where intergenerational transfer ensures the continuity of culinary traditions [70,71]. As highlighted in the FGDs, children typically emulate their parents’ seaweed consumption habits.

The study identified 13 commonly consumed seaweed species (Figure 2) from 7 genera, namely Kappaphycus, Eucheuma, Caulerpa, Solieria, Chaetomorpha, Gracilaria, and Hydroclathrus. Within the Kappaphycus genus, the consumption rates were as follows: K. alvarezii: 62.82%, K. striatus: 57.40%, Kappaphycus spp.: 46.57%, and K. malesianus: 7.94%. Eucheuma denticulatum consumption was reported at 56.68% (Table 2E). These eucheumatoid seaweeds (E. denticulatum, K. alvarezii, and K. striatus) are primary farmed species in Tawi-Tawi, supporting local livelihoods [43]. Their abundance, both farmed and wild, contributes to the community’s familiarity and consumption. These species are also readily available in Tawi-Tawi public markets [2]. The identified edible seaweeds align with those known in Asia [72]. Among Caulerpa species, the consumption rates were dominated by C. lentillifera (63.54%), followed by Caulerpa spp. (50.54%), C. cf. macrodisca ecad corynephora (45.49%), and C. racemosa (29.96%). Solieria robusta consumption was 48.74%. In contrast, Chaetomorpha crassa, Gracilaria spp., and Hydroclathrus clathratus had low consumption rates of 2.88%, 0.72% and 0.36%, respectively (Table 2E). Globally, 15 out of 97 recognized Caulerpa species are consumed [73]. Caulerpa species and S. robusta are common in Tawi-Tawi markets [2], with the preference for C. lentillifera consistent with its palatability in the Indo-Pacific region [73]. In eastern Sorsogon, C. chemnitzia ecad turbinata and Gelidiella acerosa are key edible seaweeds [40]. Edible seaweeds, like Caulerpa, Codium, Acanthophora, Sargassum, Hydroclathrus, Gracilaria, Porphyra, and Laurencia, have been consumed in the Philippines since the 1960s [56]. In Thailand, C. crassa and H. clathratus are part of the local cuisine [74]. The low consumption of C. crassa, Gracilaria spp., and H. clathratus in Tawi-Tawi, as highlighted in FGDs, is attributed to neophobia towards unfamiliar seaweeds due to perceived health risks, a phenomenon also observed in Western countries [62].

The preference of consumers in terms of the seaweed parts is shown in Table 2F. Although the whole thalli of eucheumatoid seaweeds are considered edible, most of the consumers preferred to eat the small, apical, and soft branches (55%) of Kappaphycus, while 45% preferred it as a whole plant, including the main larger branches. This preference likely stems from the apical branches being less calcified and more succulent [75], offering a more palatable and easier-to-chew texture. Younger tissues in these branches may also have lower fiber content [76]. For E. denticulatum, the whole part was mostly preferred (50.31%), while 49.69% of small and soft branch parts were consumed less often. This could imply that the textural differences between the main branches and smaller branches are less pronounced or less of a determining factor for consumers compared to Kappaphycus. E. denticulatum is distinguished from K. alvarezii and K. striatus by its relatively thinner axes (less than 1 cm in diameter), which feature regular whorls of spines that can be entirely smooth in some areas [2]. Such morphology of E. denticulatum may give the fair preference of consumers towards eating whole or only apical portions. For Caulerpa spp., the majority (55%) like to eat the ramuli (fronds) regions only (excluding the stolon parts), while others prefer to eat the whole plant (45%), including the stolon. The notable preference for Caulerpa’s ramuli over the entire plant suggests the stolon is less desirable. This could be due to the stolon’s tougher texture, a less appealing flavor profile, or its association with the substrate, potentially leading to a perception of it being less clean or having an earthy taste. For S. robusta, the majority preferred to eat the whole part (75%), while only 25% preferred the small and soft branch parts. Other seaweeds, like C. crassa, H. clathratus, and Gracilaria spp., were eaten whole (100%). This suggests that the entire seaweed offers desirable qualities. Perhaps the textures of these edible seaweeds are uniformly palatable or the flavor is consistent throughout.

Edible seaweeds, especially eucheumatoid varieties, are susceptible to ice-ice disease [69,77]. Regarding the consumption of infected seaweeds, the majority of respondents (94.59%) reported avoiding ice-ice diseased seaweeds, while a small percentage (5.41%) were not concerned by it (Table 2G). Similarly, most respondents (90.97%) were aware of and avoided consuming unhealthy, pale seaweeds indicative of ice-ice disease, although 9.03% still consumed them (Table 2H). Furthermore, 83.75% did not consume epiphyte-infected seaweeds, but a notable 16.25% continued to do so (Table 2I). This high rate of avoidance for unhealthy or infected seaweeds suggests a strong local understanding of food safety concerning marine resources. The less desirable taste of such seaweeds likely reinforces this avoidance. This awareness is particularly important in communities heavily dependent on wild harvesting or collecting from farmed sites, where educational efforts and traditional ecological knowledge [78] likely play a significant role.

The majority of respondents (43.32%) preferred to consume seaweed raw, while 39.71% favored readily available cooked or salad preparations from local markets, and 16.97% consumed it depending on the occasion (Table 2J). Raw consumption, often as salad or eaten directly, is common for Caulerpa species and sometimes S. robusta, a practice prevalent across Asia and the Pacific [73]. Among salad preparation preferences, 76.90% of informants preferred cooked (boiled or blanched) seaweed with spices, 74.73% favored raw salad (cleaned and spiced), and 32.85% preferred plain raw seaweed without added spices (Table 2K). This variation arises from the different textures and flavors of edible seaweeds and individual consumer preferences. Eucheumatoid seaweeds are typically cooked briefly to soften them before being used in salads (

Table 3. Seaweed salad preparation methods in coastal communities of Tawi-Tawi, Philippines.

Salad Name	Mode of Preparation
Eucheumatoid seaweed (Kappaphycus and Eucheuma) salad (Agal-agal kinilaw)	Seaweeds are cleaned, boiled for a few minutes to soften, washed, drained, cut into desired sizes, and then seasoned with spices and ingredients, like vinegar, soy sauce, tomato, onion, chili, MSG, calamansi/lemon, garlic, ginger, unripe mango, sugar, and salt. If available, locally made toasted grated coconut (bubuk) can be added. Occasionally, sea urchin roe, sea cucumber meat or roe, or giant clam are added to enhance the flavor.
Caulerpa salad (Lato/gamay kinilaw)	Raw and fresh seaweed (fronds/ramuli, mostly excluding the stolon) is cleaned and washed with seawater and set aside. A sauce made of vinegar, soy sauce, onion, chili, MSG, and calamansi/lemon is prepared in a separate bowl/plate. It is eaten by dipping the Caulerpa into the mixed sauce. It can be consumed without sauce (direct eating).
Solieria salad (Gulaman kinilaw)	The whole seaweed is cleaned, soaked in hot water for a few minutes to soften (optional), drained, cut into desired sizes, and then seasoned with spices and ingredients, like vinegar, soy sauce, tomato, onion, chili, MSG, calamansi/lemon, garlic, ginger, unripe mango, sugar, and salt. Occasionally, sea urchin roe, sea cucumber meat or roe, or giant clam are added to enhance the flavor.
Chaetomorpha salad	Raw seaweed is washed and is enjoyed by dipping into the prepared premixed sauce, similar to Caulerpa.
Gracilaria salad	The cleaned seaweed is consumed either raw or boiled for a few minutes and then seasoned with spices and ingredients, like vinegar, soy sauce, onion, tomato, chili, calamansi, and unripe mango. Occasionally, sea urchin roe and sea cucumber meat or roe are added to enhance the flavor.
Hydroclathrus salad	The whole raw seaweed is washed and cleaned and consumed with premixed sauce. Most of the time, it is mixed with sea urchin roe, sea cucumber meat or roe, or giant clam for more palatability.

). In contrast, Caulerpa species, S. robusta, H. clathratus, and Gracilaria spp. are commonly consumed raw and fresh, often mixed with other ingredients (Table 3). Notably, freshly harvested Caulerpa is sometimes eaten directly by gleaners or seaweed farmers without spices for immediate sustenance. Across the Indo-Pacific, Caulerpa is frequently eaten fresh and raw, often seasoned with lemon and coconut milk [73]. Traditionally, Filipinos have consumed seaweed as salad, either raw or blanched [56].

Local perceptions in Tawi-Tawi indicate a limited shelf-life for seaweed salads. The majority believe eucheumatoid seaweed salad stays fresh for only a few hours (71.48%), with fewer estimating 1–2 days (27.80%) or 3–4 days (0.72%). Caulerpa-based salads are similarly expected to last just a few hours (86.52%), with a small portion anticipating 1–2 days (13.48%). Solieria salad is also perceived to remain fresh for a few hours by most (71.27%), with some suggesting 1–2 days (27.62%) and a minimal few suggesting 3–4 days (1.10%). Chaetomorpha/Gracilaria/Hydroclathrus salads are perceived to last only a few hours (100%) (Table 2L). This short-perceived shelf-life likely reflects the fresh, minimally processed nature of these local dishes and the tropical climate of the Indo-Pacific, which can hasten spoilage [73,79]. Investigating traditional preparation methods and potential natural preservation techniques could provide insights for extending the shelf-life of these important local foods.

When asked about processing or preserving seaweeds for later consumption, the vast majority of respondents (97.83%) indicated they did not typically do so, relying instead on readily available fresh seaweeds. Only a small fraction (2.17%) reported pickling seaweed and storing it in bottles (Table 2M). This suggests a strong dependence on fresh seaweed for consumption in Tawi-Tawi’s coastal communities, with limited engagement in preservation methods, like pickling. FGDs revealed a historical use of edible seaweeds as an ingredient in the traditional sweet delicacy “bang bang durur”, although this practice has become less common due to declining local knowledge transfer. Additionally, some communities have utilized seaweeds to make chips for local snack consumption. Traditional seaweed dishes vary globally; for instance, the Azores Islands in Portugal feature fried seaweed patties made with garlic, malagueta pepper paste, and either corn flour or eggs [80].

Regarding the frequency of seaweed consumption, while 40.43% of respondents preferred to eat it once a month, a substantial 32.85% consumed it once a week. Other frequencies included 2–3 times a week (12.27%), 2–3 times a month (6.50%), daily (5.42%), and once a year (2.53%) (Table 2N). This contrasts with Japan, where a significant portion of adults aged 40–79 consume seaweed frequently, with 20–38% eating it more than 5 times a week [81,82].

The primary source of edible seaweeds for consumers was the wild (54.51%), followed by the market (45.85%) with unknown source. A smaller proportion (24.91%) was sourced from farms (Table 2O). Wild harvesting is common for some species, like Caulerpa and S. robusta, followed by selling them in the public market [2], as cultivation techniques for these are not currently employed in Tawi-Tawi. This aligns with practices in other regions, like French Polynesia, where wild Caulerpa is harvested sustainably by leaving the rhizomes intact [73]. Farmed seaweeds in Tawi-Tawi are primarily limited to eucheumatoid species within the Kappaphycus and Eucheuma genera [43], making farms the main source for these types of edible seaweeds.

The preparation of seaweed salads is predominantly the responsibility of mothers (71.48%), followed by any available family member (20.58%). Children (4.33%) and fathers (3.61%) are less frequently involved (Table 2P). This aligns with the common role of women in food preparation within Filipino households [83] and across Asia more broadly [84,85,86]. In Malaysia, mothers play a crucial role in transmitting culinary knowledge, ensuring the preservation of traditional food practices [87]. This suggests that a similar dynamic may be at play in the Tawi-Tawi communities regarding seaweed salad preparation, with mothers as key custodians of this culinary tradition.

Seaweed is primarily consumed as a main dish or viand (91.70%, Table 2Q), highlighting its significance as a staple food source in the region. This aligns with FGD findings indicating that seaweed serves as a crucial alternative when fish are scarce, underscoring its role in food security and dietary diversity in coastal communities where access to other protein sources may be limited. This pattern is also observed in eastern Sorsogon, Philippines, where seaweed salad similarly functions as a main dish [40], potentially due to the abundance of certain species, traditional culinary practices, and nutritional value. While the primary use of seaweed is as a main dish, it is also consumed as an appetizer (32.13%), snack (9.75%), and dessert (6.50%), indicating its versatility in the local diet. The lower percentages for snacks and desserts might reflect the available seaweed types and traditional preparations, contrasting with regions, like Australia, where younger populations mainly consume seaweed as snacks [49].

Seaweed consumption predominantly occurs at home (97.11%, Table 2R), highlighting its integration into the daily diets of Tawi-Tawi coastal communities. Similar patterns are observed in other coastal regions relying on local marine resources [88]. Its significant consumption in recreational areas, like beaches, or during picnics (82.31%) indicates its role extends beyond sustenance to social and leisure activities, suggesting that seaweed-based dishes are convenient, portable, and culturally enjoyed in communal settings, similar to other maritime cultures [89]. The consumption during significant events, like Ramadan and other ceremonial rites (15.16%), suggests potential cultural and symbolic importance, aligning with the role of food in religious observances and traditional ceremonies as markers of identity and social cohesion [89,90]. Finally, the use of seaweeds during travel (7.22%) suggests their practicality as a portable and potentially minimally preserved food source, consistent with the use of readily available marine resources for journeys in coastal communities due to their accessibility and nutritional value [91].

The majority of respondents (79.42%) began consuming seaweeds in childhood, while 13.72% started over 10 years ago, and a smaller portion (6.86%) started recently (Table 2S). The primary source of learning about seaweed consumption was family/ancestors (95.31%), with smaller percentages learning from friends (6.86%) and relatives (2.17%) (Table 2T). FGDs indicated that seaweed consumption is a deeply ingrained cultural practice passed down through generations, often encouraged by female elders. This pattern of food knowledge transfer through female relatives is also observed in Partido District, eastern Camarines Sur [42]. The intergenerational transmission of family food traditions plays a role in preserving ethnic cultural identity [92]. It is crucial to note, however, that this knowledge transfer primarily applies to fresh or minimally processed forms of seaweed consumption, as highlighted earlier. Findings from FGDs indicate a concerning erosion of traditional seaweed-infused food preparations; such methods are now known by only a limited number of elders, with younger generations expressing little interest in their adoption, preferring modern food preparation without seaweed. The preservation of food culture faces significant challenges driven by interconnected global forces. Globalization and the industrialization of food systems lead to dietary homogenization and the marginalization of diverse, traditional practices, often resulting in a loss of culinary knowledge and local food sovereignty [93,94]. Urbanization further compounds these issues by shifting dietary patterns towards processed foods and diminishing the intergenerational transfer of culinary heritage due to changing lifestyles [95,96].

3.3. Perspective on the Benefits and Risks of Consuming Seaweeds

Table 4. Perspective on the benefits and risks of consuming seaweeds.

A. Seaweeds Are Considered Healthy	No. of Consumers	% Frequency
Yes	170	61.37
No	6	2.17
No idea	101	36.46
B. Benefits of consuming seaweeds
Aid hunger	211	76.17
Avoid obesity	39	14.08
Good for digestion	55	19.86
Good for the brain development	9	3.25
Good for overall health	112	40.43
Others	34	12.27
No idea	3	1.08
C. Potential nutrients obtained from consuming seaweeds
Vitamins	117	42.24
Minerals	31	11.19
Carbohydrates	12	4.33
Protein	10	3.61
No idea	140	50.54
D. Consuming seaweeds helps to treat certain diseases
No	28	10.11
Yes	106	38.27
No idea	143	51.62
E. Are you worried that farmed eucheumatoid seaweeds are being nutrient-enriched with chemical fertilizers?
No	145	52.35
Yes	132	47.65
F. Cases of illness/death after consuming seaweeds
No	262	94.58
Yes	15	5.42
G. Allergies caused by seaweed consumption
No	271	97.83
Yes	6	2.17

presents the perspectives on the benefits and risks of consuming seaweeds. A significant majority of respondents (61.37%) believe that seaweed consumption contributes to a healthy diet, while 36.46% were unsure, and a small percentage (2.17%) did not consider it a healthy dietary component (Table 4A). This strong belief in the health benefits of seaweed aligns with the existing literature that highlights the nutritional richness of various seaweed species [3,73,97,98]. However, the notable proportion of respondents expressing uncertainty suggests a potential need for increased public awareness regarding the dietary advantages of seaweeds within the community in Tawi-Tawi.

Our findings revealed a significant disconnect between the perceived benefits of seaweed consumption and the public’s awareness of its specific nutritional components. While a substantial majority of respondents recognized general benefits, a striking 50.54% were largely unaware of the specific nutrients obtained from seaweeds (Table 4B,C). Respondents primarily perceived seaweed consumption as beneficial for alleviating hunger (76.17%) and providing general health benefits (40.43%). Other noted benefits included improving digestion (19.86%), preventing obesity (14.08%), and aiding brain development (3.25%). A small percentage (1.08%) were unaware of any benefits, while 12.27% cited other advantages (Table 4B). This disparity is particularly notable because these perceived benefits are inherently linked to seaweed’s known nutritional profile. For instance, the strong association with hunger alleviation likely stems from the high fiber and water-holding capacity of many seaweeds, contributing to satiety [98,99,100]. Similarly, the recognition of general health benefits aligns with the diverse bioactive compounds found in seaweeds, including polyphenols and pigments with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [101,102,103].

Despite these direct links, awareness of crucial macronutrients, like carbohydrates (4.33%) and protein (3.61%), which contribute significantly to satiety and overall health, remained notably low (Table 4C). Even micronutrients, like vitamins (42.24%) and minerals (11.19%), though better recognized, still fell short of comprehensive awareness. This lack of specific nutritional knowledge contrasts sharply with the well-documented profile of seaweeds as rich sources of essential macro- and micronutrients, including minerals (iron, zinc, calcium, sodium, potassium, and iodine) and vitamins (C and B12) [3,30,98,104,105]. The lower recognition of carbohydrates and protein might indicate a common perception that emphasizes only the micronutrient content of seaweeds, overlooking their broader nutritional value, including soluble dietary fibers and flavonoids that act as preventive agents against lifestyle-related diseases [106]. Furthermore, specific benefits, like improved digestion and obesity prevention, were less recognized, despite supporting evidence [107,108]. The least recognized benefit was brain development, highlighting a significant need for greater public awareness regarding specific nutritional components in seaweeds, such as the omega-3 fatty acids found in some edible eucheumatoid species [104,109].

This significant gap in nutritional knowledge, particularly among communities where seaweed is a traditional food source, highlights a broader issue of public nutritional literacy. It suggests that while empirical benefits are experienced and recognized, the scientific understanding underpinning these benefits is often lacking. This trend is not uncommon in coastal communities globally, where traditional food knowledge may exist without formal nutritional education, leading to an incomplete understanding of specific nutrient contributions and even impacting the quality of food consumption [110]. Studies in various coastal regions, including the Philippines, have similarly identified deficiencies in nutritional knowledge and food security among populations reliant on marine resources, despite the inherent nutritional value of their traditional diets [111,112,113]. Addressing this gap through targeted nutritional education initiatives in Tawi-Tawi could empower consumers to make more informed dietary choices and fully leverage the health potential of seaweeds.

The majority of informants (51.62%) in Tawi-Tawi were unaware that consuming seaweed could help treat certain diseases, while a significant portion (38.17%) believed it could, and a smaller fraction (10.11%) thought it could not (Table 4D). Those who perceived medicinal benefits mentioned that consuming seaweeds, especially Caulerpa and Kappaphycus, could prevent and treat conditions, like goiter, ulcers, cancer, diabetes, hypertension, leukemia, thyroid issues, and anemia, and could be beneficial for breastfeeding mothers. These claimed therapeutic potentials align with increasing scientific research exploring the potential of seaweed extracts and compounds in preventing and managing chronic diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and diabetes [114,115,116,117,118,119,120]. The variation in awareness highlights the importance of communicating these scientific findings to the public. In eastern Camarines Sur, Philippines, C. lentillifera and C. racemosa are traditionally believed to have medicinal properties for digestive and glandular diseases [42]. Research in the northern Philippines documented 34 seaweed species, mostly edible (nearly 80%), used medicinally for 8 ailment types, primarily pulmonary, digestive, and glandular issues. C. racemosa was the most commonly known remedy for cough or asthma and, along with H. clathratus and Gracilaria edulis, showed the highest use value. Codium intricatum, Gelidiella acerosa, and C. racemosa exhibited the highest fidelity levels for their specific uses [41]. Furthermore, a recent study discovered the potential wound-healing properties of K. alvarezii [121].

Despite the prevalent use of inorganic fertilizers in farmed Kappaphycus seaweed cultivation in Tawi-Tawi to enhance productivity [43,122,123,124], a slight majority of informants (52.35%) expressed no concern regarding the consumption of these inorganic nutrient-enriched seaweeds, while a substantial 47.65% did have worries (Table 4E). This divided perception within the community is intriguing and mirrors broader global debates surrounding the use of agrochemicals in aquaculture systems, particularly concerning their environmental impact [123,125,126] and potential implications for food safety [127]. FGDs revealed differing beliefs across communities. In South Ubian and Sitangkai, many farmers believe that the inorganic fertilizers are either rapidly absorbed by the seaweed for growth or naturally dispersed within a week, leading to the perception of safety for consumption. This aligns with the scientific understanding that seaweeds assimilate inorganic nutrients, like nitrogen, from the surrounding water, incorporating them into essential organic compounds [128]. Conversely, communities in Simunul and Tandubas tend to avoid consuming seaweeds enriched with chemical fertilizers due to perceived potential health risks, with one community also reporting reduced palatability. This cautious stance resonates with global consumer concerns regarding agricultural products, including those from aquaculture, grown with synthetic inputs [129,130]. Public discourse and scientific investigations often highlight potential risks associated with the accumulation of heavy metals, residual chemicals, or the alteration of nutritional profiles when high levels of inorganic inputs are used without proper regulation or monitoring [123,125,131]. While limited evidence suggests a possible link between consuming agricultural products grown with inorganic fertilizers and certain cancers [132], robust research is still needed. Notably, there are no known studies on the potential long-term effects of consuming edible seaweeds grown with chemical fertilizers, highlighting an area for future research.

Table 4F indicates that the vast majority of respondents (95%) reported no known cases of illness or death after consuming seaweeds. However, approximately 5% reported instances of illness or death potentially linked to seaweed consumption. FGDs revealed one anecdotal case of a child’s illness associated with consuming Kappaphycus seaweed freshly soaked in an inorganic nutrient solution. While a direct causal link was not established, it was suggested that a highly concentrated fertilizer solution, rather than the seaweed itself, was the likely cause if the incident was indeed related. Overall, the findings suggest that the edible seaweeds reported in this study are generally considered safe for human consumption.

Regarding allergies related to seaweed consumption in the study sites, nearly 98% of respondents reported no association, while 2% reported some cases (Table 4G). While evidence indicates the presence of allergens in edible algae, their impact on the general population remains unclear. Reported allergic reactions to edible algae range from mild skin and digestive issues to severe reactions, like swelling and anaphylaxis [133]. Marine allergens have been detected in kelp even after processing (blanching or fermentation), but typically at concentrations below allergenic risk levels [134]. However, there are currently no specific studies available on the allergenic potential of the edible seaweed species reported in this study; hence, future research must give attention to this aspect.

4. Conclusions

The deeply ingrained tradition of seaweed consumption of coastal communities of Tawi-Tawi, Philippines, evidenced by its near-universal prevalence across generations and families, underpins its profound cultural significance. The identification of diverse edible seaweed genera, including Kappaphycus, Eucheuma, Caulerpa, Solieria, Chaetomorpha, Gracilaria, and Hydroclathrus, points to the region’s rich marine biodiversity. However, the concerning number of individuals avoiding chemically nutrient-enriched seaweeds signals a potential limitation in access to preferred species, like Kappaphycus and Eucheuma. Furthermore, the apparent disconnect between traditional seaweed processing methods and modern food technology raises a critical challenge, namely the potential erosion of invaluable ancestral knowledge. Addressing these concerns through sustainable cultivation practices, improved access to preferred species, and the integration of traditional knowledge into contemporary food systems could safeguard both the health of the community and ensure the preservation of this vital cultural heritage.