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Towards Sustainability of Controlled Environment Agriculture: Vertical Farms vs. Greenhouses
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Towards Sustainability of Controlled Environment Agriculture: Vertical Farms vs. Greenhouses

A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Horticultural and Floricultural Crops".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 October 2024 | Viewed by 3224

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Shumei Zhao

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Key Laboratory of Agricultural Engineering in Structure and Environment, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Water Resources and Civil Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: greenhouse materials and environment; Chinese solar greenhouse structure; energy-efficient technology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Weitang Song

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Key Laboratory of Agricultural Engineering in Structure and Environment, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Water Resources and Civil Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: facility mechanization equipment engineering; facility gardening environmental engineering; soilless cultivation technology and equipment

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the modern day, the escalating demand for food and agricultural products necessitates innovative solutions through controlled environment agriculture. This Special Issue is dedicated to exploring the sustainability aspects of controlled environment agriculture, specifically focusing on the benefits and potential enhancements of vertical farming and greenhouses within sustainable agriculture frameworks. It will examine the role and impact of low-carbon, energy-efficient technologies in crop production systems, including next-generation energy management, waste heat recovery, and solar energy applications. Additionally, it will delve into the application of automation systems, robotics, and intelligent equipment in planting, harvesting, and processing processes, along with advancements in infrastructure design, including materials for covering and shading. Moreover, the Issue will cover the significance of intelligent data capture, environmental management, and the refinement of control strategies within these production systems, particularly highlighting the latest developments in LED lighting technology, smart irrigation systems, and integrated water and nutrient management.

We invite original research articles addressing these topics, which should illuminate theoretical approaches, technological and equipment innovations, empirical studies, and models of the physical and/or biological processes involved, along with interdisciplinary insights. Reviews that delve into the latest technological advancements within this domain are also within the scope of this Issue.

Dr. Shumei Zhao
Dr. Weitang Song
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Agronomy is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • vertical farms
  • greenhouses
  • sustainability
  • intelligent agriculture
  • low-carbon technologies
  • facility management

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

21 pages, 4378 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Lettuce Growth in Nutrient Film Technique Hydroponics: Evaluating the Impact of Elevated Oxygen Concentrations in the Root Zone under LED Illumination
by Oana Alina Nitu, Elena Ştefania Ivan, Augustina Sandina Tronac and Adnan Arshad
Agronomy 2024, 14(9), 1896; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14091896 - 24 Aug 2024
Viewed by 886
Abstract
Evaluating different concentrations of oxygen on lettuce physiology, growth, and biochemical assays is pivotal for optimizing the nutrient film technique (NFT), boosting yields, and enhancing resource efficiency in sustainable greenhouse cultivation. Two lettuce varieties Lactuca sativa var. Lolo Bionta (Lugano) and Lolo Rosa [...] Read more.
Evaluating different concentrations of oxygen on lettuce physiology, growth, and biochemical assays is pivotal for optimizing the nutrient film technique (NFT), boosting yields, and enhancing resource efficiency in sustainable greenhouse cultivation. Two lettuce varieties Lactuca sativa var. Lolo Bionta (Lugano) and Lolo Rosa (Carmesi), were grown using NFT in a greenhouse for two consecutive years during the months of December and January. A comparative methodology was adopted under a randomized complete block design (RCBD) to study plant growth under three different oxygen concentration levels: natural oxygen concentrations (NOC); elevated oxygen concentrations (EOC); and elevated oxygen concentrations under LED light (380–840 nm) (LED + EOC). The plants were exposed to EOC levels of 8.1–8.7 mg L−1 in December and 8.7–9.0 mg L−1 in January. Under LED + EOC conditions, the levels were 8.2–8.3 mg L−1 in December and 8.8–9.0 mg L−1 in January. The NOC levels were 6.8–7.1 mg L−1 in December and 7.2–7.8 mg L−1 in January for Lugano and Carmesi, respectively. The applied light intensity, measured as photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), ranged from 463 to 495 µmol m−2 s−1 for the Lugano and from 465 to 490 µmol m−2 s−1 for the Carmesi. The dissolved oxygen concentration and LED light exposure under greenhouse conditions had significant effects (p < 0.05) on the plant growth parameters. The biochemical and physiological attributes, including transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, nitrate, chlorophyll, sugar contents, net photosynthesis, and respiration rates, varied significantly across different oxygen concentrations. Data were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA with post hoc Tukey’s HSD tests for significance (p < 0.05) using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 29.0.2.0). Both EOC and LED + EOC treatments significantly improved growth attributes compared to NOC in Lugano, with increases in plant height (16.04%, 0.85%), fresh mass (110.91%, 29.55%), root length (27.35%, 29.55%), and root mass (77.69%, 34.77%). For Carmesi, similar trends were observed with increases in plant height (5.64%, 13.27%), fresh mass (10.45%, 21.57%), root length (37.14%, 47.33%), and root mass (20.70%, 41.72%) under EOC and LED + EOC. In the intertreatment analysis, the effect of LED + EOC was more pronounced compared to EOC. In view of the intertreatment response, Lolo Bionta (Lugano) appeared to have a high overall horticultural performance (growth and yield in both EOC and LED + EOC compared to Lolo Rosa (Carmesi). The practical significance of these results lies in their potential to inform strategies for optimizing greenhouse environments, particularly through the manipulation of oxygen levels and light exposure. The significant increases in growth metrics, especially under the LED + EOC conditions, suggest that targeted environmental adjustments can lead to substantial improvements in lettuce yield and quality. The findings also contribute to the advancement of sustainable agricultural technologies aiming to enhance food security and sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Sustainability of Controlled Environment Agriculture: Vertical Farms vs. Greenhouses)
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16 pages, 2096 KiB  
Article
Nocturnal LED Supplemental Lighting Improves Quality of Tomato Seedlings by Increasing Biomass Accumulation in a Controlled Environment
by Jinxiu Song, Rong Zhang, Fulin Yang, Jianfeng Wang, Wei Cai and Yue Zhang
Agronomy 2024, 14(9), 1888; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14091888 - 24 Aug 2024
Viewed by 425
Abstract
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. cv. Zhongza NO. 9) was used as the experimental material to investigate the effects of nocturnal LED supplemental light with the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 100, 200, 300 μmol·m−2·s−1, and the light [...] Read more.
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. cv. Zhongza NO. 9) was used as the experimental material to investigate the effects of nocturnal LED supplemental light with the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 100, 200, 300 μmol·m−2·s−1, and the light time of 1, 2 h on the seedling quality in a controlled environment, with seedlings without nocturnal supplemental lighting serving as the control. The results demonstrate that an increase in PPFD at night progressively enhances the plant height and leaf number of tomato seedlings, while stem diameter and leaf area initially increase and subsequently decrease. Although light time and light period-of-time at night did not significantly affect seedling morphology, PPFD and light time notably influenced chlorophyll content and net photosynthetic rate. An optimal lighting energy amount at night augmented photosynthetic capacity. However, excessive PPFD induced photoinhibition in the leaves. Additionally, appropriate nocturnal LED supplemental lighting significantly improved the antioxidant capacity of the seedlings, increased proline content, reduced malondialdehyde content, and bolstered the self-protection mechanisms of the seedlings against nocturnal light stress. Both the PPFD and light time at night promoted biomass accumulation in tomato seedlings. Specifically, when supplemental lighting was applied for 2 h at an intensity of 200 μmol·m−2·s−1, both the fresh and dry weights of the shoot and root significantly increased, and the seedling health index was highest. Therefore, appropriate nocturnal LED supplemental lighting positively impacts the health index and photosynthate accumulation of tomato seedlings, but controlling PPFD is essential to avoid photoinhibition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Sustainability of Controlled Environment Agriculture: Vertical Farms vs. Greenhouses)
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0 pages, 4358 KiB  
Article
Distribution Characteristics and Prediction of Temperature and Relative Humidity in a South China Greenhouse
by Xinyu Wei, Bin Li, Huazhong Lu, Jiaming Guo, Zhaojie Dong, Fengxi Yang, Enli Lü and Yanhua Liu
Agronomy 2024, 14(7), 1580; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14071580 - 20 Jul 2024
Viewed by 547
Abstract
South China has a climate characteristic of high temperature and high humidity, and the temperature and relative humidity inside a Venlo greenhouse are higher than those in the atmosphere. This paper studied the effect of ventilation conditions on the spatial and temporal distribution [...] Read more.
South China has a climate characteristic of high temperature and high humidity, and the temperature and relative humidity inside a Venlo greenhouse are higher than those in the atmosphere. This paper studied the effect of ventilation conditions on the spatial and temporal distribution of temperature and relative humidity in a Venlo greenhouse. Two ventilation conditions, with and without a fan-pad system, were studied. A GA + BP neural network was applied to predict the temperature and relative humidity in fan-pad ventilation in the greenhouse. The results show that the temperature in the Venlo greenhouse ranged from 15.8 °C to 48.5 °C, and the relative humidity ranged from 24.9% to 100% during the tomato-planting cycle. The percentage of days when the temperature exceeded 35 °C was 67.3%, and the percentage of days when the average relative humidity exceeded 70% was 83.7%. The maximum temperature differences between the three heights under NV (Natural Ventilation) and FPV (Fan-pad Ventilation) conditions were 3.4 °C and 4.5 °C, respectively. The maximum relative humidity differences between the three heights under NV and FPV conditions were 8.4% and 21.7%, respectively. The maximum temperature difference in the longitudinal section under the FPV conditions was 3.2 °C, while the relative humidity was 11.4%. The cooling efficiency of the fan-pad system ranged from 16.6% to 70.2%. The non-uniform coefficients of the temperature under the FPV conditions were higher than those under the NV conditions, while the nonuniform coefficients of the relative humidity were the highest during the day. The R2, MAE, MAPE and RMSE of the temperature-testing model were 0.91, 0.94, 0.11, and 1.33, respectively, while those of relative humidity model were 0.93, 2.83, 0.10, and 3.86, respectively. The results provide a reference for the design and management of Venlo greenhouses in South China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Sustainability of Controlled Environment Agriculture: Vertical Farms vs. Greenhouses)
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17 pages, 3378 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Effectiveness of Reflective and Diffusive Polyethylene Films as Greenhouse Covers in Arid Environments
by Abdullah A. Al-Madani, Ibrahim M. Al-Helal and Abdullah A. Alsadon
Agronomy 2024, 14(5), 1082; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14051082 - 20 May 2024
Viewed by 864
Abstract
The application of diffusive and reflective polyethylene (PE) films as greenhouse coverings in arid climates presents an opportunity to improve the microclimate of the greenhouse and achieve consistent light distribution within the crop canopy. Nevertheless, there is still a lack of understanding regarding [...] Read more.
The application of diffusive and reflective polyethylene (PE) films as greenhouse coverings in arid climates presents an opportunity to improve the microclimate of the greenhouse and achieve consistent light distribution within the crop canopy. Nevertheless, there is still a lack of understanding regarding the properties of these covers and their impact on the microclimate and the growth parameters of crops. This study aimed to assess the impact of different covers on the diffusion of beam radiation during transmission, microclimatic parameters, and growth parameters of cucumbers in each of the greenhouses they covered. In the study, three PE covers were evaluated: a reflective cover (RC), a diffusive film (DC), and a locally produced cover (LPC) as the control treatment. The covers were installed on three identical, single-span, evaporatively cooled greenhouses named GH1/LPC, GH2/RC, and GH3/DC, which were utilized for cultivating cucumber crops. The results indicated that the diffusive nature of the tested films increased the ratio of diffuse to global solar radiation (D/G) from 0.22 outside the greenhouses to 0.49, 0.42, and 0.41 inside GH1/LPC, GH3/DC, and GH2/RC, respectively. Similarly, the ratio of diffuse to direct beam radiation (D/B) showed an increase, with values of 0.95, 0.70, and 0.68 inside GH1/LPC, GH3/DC, and GH2/RC, respectively, compared to the outside value of 0.28. The DC used in GH3 showed a favorable microclimate by reducing the air temperature and improving the relative humidity. Accordingly, the vegetative growth of the cucumbers was significantly improved in GH3/DC, reflected in increases in their biomass, followed by GH2/RC and GH1/LPC. The highest crop yield (p ≤ 0.05) of 12.3 kg/m2 was achieved in GH3/DC, followed by 10.2 kg/m2 in GH2/RC and 10.1 kg/m2 in GH1/LPC. Interestingly, the LPC not only stood out as a low-cost option but also displayed excellent diffusive–radiative properties, and demonstrated reasonable growth development and productivity for the cucumber crops. Consequently, the LPC emerges as a practical and cost-effective greenhouse covering material for crop production in arid climates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Sustainability of Controlled Environment Agriculture: Vertical Farms vs. Greenhouses)
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