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New Insights into Earthen Site Conservation: Methods, Techniques, Management, and...
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New Insights into Earthen Site Conservation: Methods, Techniques, Management, and Key Case Studies

A special issue of Coatings (ISSN 2079-6412). This special issue belongs to the section "Surface Characterization, Deposition and Modification".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2025 | Viewed by 7464

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Stephen S.Y. Lau

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Heritage Conservation Laboratory, Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau 999078, China
Interests: sustainable building design; integrated photovoltaics; energy conservation; microclimate; thermal comfort
Dr. Yile Chen

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China
Interests: urban design and renewal; Lingnan historical buildings; urban morphology; machine learning (CGAN and YOLO)
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Liang Zheng

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Heritage Conservation Laboratory, Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau 999078, China
Interests: application of AI in architecture; regional cultural architecture in china; sustainable building design for data centers
Dr. Jianyi Zheng

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor Assistant
Heritage Conservation Laboratory, Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau 999078, China
Interests: urban form and urban renewal protection; healthy urban form; smart heritage

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Earthen sites are ancient sites that hold significant historical, cultural, and scientific value, with earth serving as the primary building material. As places of great importance for civilization, earthen sites not only account for a large proportion of cultural heritage resources but also contain extremely rich historical information. They form an important basis for studying the origin and development of civilization and have great historical, scientific, and artistic value. Taking China as an example, earthen sites are distributed throughout the country; as of the confirmation of the sixth batch of national key cultural relic protection sites, there are about 400 earthen sites on this list, distributed over 30 provinces (municipalities and autonomous regions) across the country. Their construction technology includes adobe, rammed earth, cast earth, and other methods, and their construction methods mainly include raw earth excavation, silt ramming, adobe masonry, wet earth, and mud pile construction. These sites include ancient cities (such as the rammed-earth ancient city wall of Pingyao, Shanxi), the Great Wall, passes, beacons, earth towers (such as the Yumen Pass earthen site), tombs (such as the Western Xia royal tombs), earth pits, earth caves, earth kilns, earth cellars (such as the Qin Shihuang Terracotta Warriors and Horses Earth Pit), and rammed-earth buildings (such as the Hakka earth buildings in Fujian). The protection of earthen sites has developed into a multidisciplinary field combining physics, chemistry, archaeology, geology, humanities, and art. Relevant research fields encompass protection concepts, value interpretation, disease mechanisms, protection technologies, preventive protection, and the digitization of cultural relics. As a result, numerous excellent scientific research results have been obtained.

Therefore, this Special Issue will focus on important areas such as surface corrosion analysis, protection, and heritage management at earthen sites. Surface corrosion, caused by a complex interplay of environmental factors, microbial activity, and physical abrasion, can irreversibly damage the delicate fabric of earthen structures, eroding their historical and archaeological significance. Our aim is to publish a collection of high-quality research and practical insights that explore innovative solutions and conservation strategies.

The scope of this Special Issue includes, but is not limited to, the following topics:

  • Advanced Coating Materials for Corrosion Prevention;
  • Coating Application and Optimization;
  • Interdisciplinary Conservation Approaches;
  • Case Studies and Field Experiences.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Prof. Stephen S.Y. Lau
Dr. Yile Chen
Dr. Liang Zheng
Guest Editors

Dr. Jianyi Zheng
Guest Editor Assistant

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Coatings is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

 

Keywords

  • earthen site
  • heritage science
  • conservation
  • architectural surface
  • archaeological surface

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 134 KB  
Editorial
New Insights into Earthen Site Conservation: Multidisciplinary Collaboration and Development
by Yile Chen and Liang Zheng
Coatings 2025, 15(11), 1249; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15111249 - 27 Oct 2025
Abstract
Earthen sites are ancient sites that hold significant historical, cultural, and scientific value, with earth serving as the primary building material [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Earthen Site Conservation: Methods, Techniques, Management, and Key Case Studies)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

33 pages, 8277 KB  
Article
Microbial Diversity Analysis on Rammed Earth Wall Surfaces in the Lingnan Region: A Case Study of Paishan Village, China
by Wei Wei, Shuai Yang, Junxin Song and Md Sayuti Bin Ishak
Coatings 2025, 15(11), 1236; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15111236 - 23 Oct 2025
Viewed by 232
Abstract
Rammed earth walls in traditional villages in the humid and hot climate of Lingnan are susceptible to microbial damage and disease. Paishan Village in Zhuhai, which is the largest extant rammed earth building complex in the Pearl River Delta with rammed earth walls [...] Read more.
Rammed earth walls in traditional villages in the humid and hot climate of Lingnan are susceptible to microbial damage and disease. Paishan Village in Zhuhai, which is the largest extant rammed earth building complex in the Pearl River Delta with rammed earth walls dating from the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) Dynasties to the Republic of China (1912–1949) period, faces weathering and hollowing issues, yet targeted microbial research is lacking. This study, with a focus on the village’s rammed earth walls, aimed to reveal microbial diversity and its relationship to the environment, providing a basis for heritage conservation. We used SEM (scanning electron microscopy) to analyze the microstructure of walls facing different orientations. High-throughput sequencing (based on the 16S rRNA gene V3–V4 region) was combined with microbial community analysis. Species annotation and differential analysis were performed using QIIME2 and R. The results indicated that the west wall had the highest microbial diversity (45 at the phylum level and 2969 at the genus level), while the south wall exhibited the lowest. Different orientations shaped distinct community structures, with the north wall harboring a higher concentration of hygrophilous microorganisms, while the south wall was dominated by thermotolerant bacteria. All four walls shared only 0.29% of the core microorganisms. This study elucidates the distribution patterns of microorganisms in rammed earth walls in humid and hot areas, offering scientific support for their ecological restoration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Earthen Site Conservation: Methods, Techniques, Management, and Key Case Studies)
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28 pages, 10955 KB  
Article
Experimental Study on the Anti-Erosion of the Exterior Walls of Ancient Rammed-Earth Houses in Yangjiatang Village, Lishui
by Yujun Zheng, Junxin Song, Xiaohan Zhang, Yake Hu, Ruihang Chen and Shuai Yang
Coatings 2025, 15(10), 1173; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15101173 - 7 Oct 2025
Viewed by 331
Abstract
Yangjiatang Village traces its origins to the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. It has evolved over more than 400 years of history. There are 78 rammed-earth buildings left, making it one of the most complete and largest rammed-earth building complexes in East [...] Read more.
Yangjiatang Village traces its origins to the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. It has evolved over more than 400 years of history. There are 78 rammed-earth buildings left, making it one of the most complete and largest rammed-earth building complexes in East China. This study investigated the traditional rammed-earth houses in Yangjiatang Village, Songyang County, Zhejiang Province. By combining field investigation, microscopic characterization, and experimental simulation, we systematically revealed the erosion resistance of rammed earth in a subtropical humid climate was systematically revealed. Using a combination of advanced techniques including drone aerial photography, X-ray diffraction (XRD), microbial community analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and soil leaching simulations, we systematically revealed the anti-erosion mechanisms of rammed-earth surfaces in Yangjiatang Village. The study found that (1) rammed-earth walls are primarily composed of Quartz, Mullite, lepidocrocite, and Nontronite, with quartz and lepidocrocite being the dominant minerals across all orientations. (2) Regulating the community structure of specific functional microorganisms enhanced the erosion resistance of rammed-earth buildings. (3) The surface degradation of rammed-earth walls is mainly caused by four factors: structural cracks, surface erosion, biological erosion and roof damage. These factors work together to cause surface cracking and peeling (depth up to 3–5 cm). (4) This study indicates that the microbial communities in rammed-earth building walls show significant differences in various orientations. Microorganisms play a dual role in the preservation and deterioration of rammed-earth buildings: they can slow down weathering by forming protective biofilms or accelerating erosion through acid production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Earthen Site Conservation: Methods, Techniques, Management, and Key Case Studies)
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27 pages, 8850 KB  
Article
Dual-Path Framework Analysis of Crack Detection Algorithm and Scenario Simulation on Fujian Tulou Surface
by Yanfeng Hu, Shaokang Chen, Zhuang Zhao and Si Cheng
Coatings 2025, 15(10), 1156; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15101156 - 3 Oct 2025
Viewed by 437
Abstract
Fujian Tulou, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is highly vulnerable to environmental and anthropogenic stresses, with its earthen walls prone to surface cracking that threatens both structural stability and cultural value. Traditional manual inspection is inefficient, subjective, and may disturb fragile surfaces, highlighting [...] Read more.
Fujian Tulou, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is highly vulnerable to environmental and anthropogenic stresses, with its earthen walls prone to surface cracking that threatens both structural stability and cultural value. Traditional manual inspection is inefficient, subjective, and may disturb fragile surfaces, highlighting the need for non-destructive and automated solutions. This study proposes a dual-path framework that integrates lightweight crack detection with independent physical simulation. On the detection side, an improved YOLOv12 model is developed to achieve lightweight and accurate recognition of multiple crack types under complex wall textures. On the simulation side, a two-layer RFPA3D model was employed to parameterize loading conditions and material thickness, reproducing the four-stage crack evolution process, and aligning well with field observations. Quantitative validation across paired samples demonstrates improved consistency in morphology, geometry, and topology compared with baseline models. Overall, the framework offers an effective and interpretable solution for standardized crack documentation and mechanistic interpretation, providing practical benefits for the preventive conservation and sustainable management of Fujian Tulou. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Earthen Site Conservation: Methods, Techniques, Management, and Key Case Studies)
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27 pages, 11202 KB  
Article
Durability Analysis of Brick-Faced Clay-Core Walls in Traditional Residential Architecture in Quanzhou, China
by Yuhong Ding, Ruiming Guan, Li Chen, Jinxuan Wang, Yangming Zhang, Yili Fu and Canjin Zhang
Coatings 2025, 15(8), 909; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15080909 - 3 Aug 2025
Viewed by 743
Abstract
This study analyzes the durability of brick-faced clay-core walls (BCWs) in the traditional residential architecture of Quanzhou—a UNESCO World Heritage City. Taking the northern gable of Ding Gongchen’s former residence as an example, the mechanical properties, microscopic structure, and changes in chemical symbol, [...] Read more.
This study analyzes the durability of brick-faced clay-core walls (BCWs) in the traditional residential architecture of Quanzhou—a UNESCO World Heritage City. Taking the northern gable of Ding Gongchen’s former residence as an example, the mechanical properties, microscopic structure, and changes in chemical symbol, oxides and minerals of the red bricks and clay-cores were analyzed using finite element mechanics analysis (FEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results indicate a triple mechanism: (1) The collaborative protection and reinforcement mechanism of “brick-wrapped-clay”. (2) The infiltration and destruction mechanism of external pollutants. (3) The material stability mechanism of silicate minerals. Therefore, the key to maintaining the durability of BCWs lies in the synergistic effect of brick and clay materials and the stability of silicate mineral materials, providing theoretical and methodological support for sustainable research into brick and clay constructions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Earthen Site Conservation: Methods, Techniques, Management, and Key Case Studies)
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25 pages, 10097 KB  
Article
Biocrusts Alter the Pore Structure and Water Infiltration in the Top Layer of Rammed Soils at Weiyuan Section of the Great Wall in China
by Xiaoju Yang, Fasi Wu, Long Li, Ruihua Shang, Dandan Li, Lina Xu, Jing Cui and Xueyong Zhao
Coatings 2025, 15(8), 908; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15080908 - 3 Aug 2025
Viewed by 568
Abstract
The surface of the Great Wall harbors a large number of non-vascular plants dominated by cyanobacteria, lichens and mosses as well as microorganisms, and form biocrusts by cementing with the soils and greatly alters the pore structure of the soil and the ecohydrological [...] Read more.
The surface of the Great Wall harbors a large number of non-vascular plants dominated by cyanobacteria, lichens and mosses as well as microorganisms, and form biocrusts by cementing with the soils and greatly alters the pore structure of the soil and the ecohydrological processes associated with the soil pore space, and thus influences the soil resistance to erosion. However, the microscopic role of the biocrusts in influencing the pore structure of the surface of the Great Wall is not clear. This study chose the Warring States Qin Great Wall in Weiyuan, Gansu Province, China, as research site to quantify thepore structure characteristics of the three-dimensional of bare soil, cyanobacterial-lichen crusts, and moss crusts at the depth of 0–50 mm, by using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray computed tomography and image analysis, and the precipitation infiltration process. The results showed that the moss crust layer was dominated by large pores with long extension and good connectivity, which provided preferential seepage channels for precipitation infiltration, while the connectivity between the cyanobacterial-lichen crust voids was poor; The porosity of the cyanobacterial-lichen crust and the moss crust was 500% and 903.27% higher than that of the bare soil, respectively. The porosity of the subsurface layer of cyanobacterial-lichen crust and moss crust was significantly lower than that of the biocrusts layer by 92.54% and 97.96%, respectively, and the porosity of the moss crust was significantly higher than that of the cyanobacterial-lichen crust in the same layer; Cyanobacterial-lichen crusts increased the degree of anisotropy, mean tortuosity, moss crust reduced the degree of anisotropy, mean tortuosity. Biocrusts increased the fractal dimension and Euler number of pores. Compared with bare soil, moss crust and cyanobacterial-lichen crust increased the isolated porosity by 2555% and 4085%, respectively; Biocrusts increased the complexity of the pore network models; The initial infiltration rate, stable infiltration rate, average infiltration rate, and the total amount of infiltration of moss crusted soil was 2.26 and 3.12 times, 1.07 and 1.63 times, respectively, higher than that of the cyanobacterial-lichen crusts and the bare soil, by 1.53 and 2.33 times, and 1.13 and 2.08 times, respectively; CT porosity and clay content are significantly positively correlated with initial soil infiltration rate (|r| ≥ 0.85), while soil type and organic matter content are negatively correlated with initial soil infiltration rate. The soil type and bulk density are directly positively and negatively correlated with CT porosity, respectively (|r| ≥ 0.52). There is a significant negative correlation between soil clay content and porosity (|r| = 0.15, p < 0.001). Biocrusts alter the erosion resistance of rammed earth walls by affecting the soil microstructure of the earth’s great wall, altering precipitation infiltration, and promoting vascular plant colonisation, which in turn alters the erosion resistance of the wall. The research results have important reference for the development of disposal plans for biocrusts on the surface of archaeological sites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Earthen Site Conservation: Methods, Techniques, Management, and Key Case Studies)
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23 pages, 6820 KB  
Article
Anti-Erosion Mechanism of Biological Crusts and Eco-Protection Technology Using Composite Biofilms for Traditional Rammed Earth Dwellings in Songyang County
by Jiahui Yang, Ning Wang, Zebiao Huang, Yue Huang, Weilu Lv and Shuai Yang
Coatings 2025, 15(5), 608; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15050608 - 20 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 888
Abstract
A typical county for traditional village conservation in China is Songyang County. It is renowned for its ancient rammed earth dwellings, which exhibit a unique microclimate and possess significant historical value. However, high precipitation and acid rain under the subtropical monsoon climate have [...] Read more.
A typical county for traditional village conservation in China is Songyang County. It is renowned for its ancient rammed earth dwellings, which exhibit a unique microclimate and possess significant historical value. However, high precipitation and acid rain under the subtropical monsoon climate have caused severe surface erosion, including cracking and spalling. This study focuses on traditional rammed earth dwellings in Chenjiapeng Village, Songyang County, combining field surveys, experimental analysis, and microscopic characterization to systematically investigate erosion mechanisms and protection strategies. Techniques, such as drone aerial photography, X-ray diffraction (XRD), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), and microbial diversity detection, were employed to elucidate the anti-erosion mechanisms of gray–green biological crusts on rammed earth surfaces. The results indicate that algal crusts enhance surface compressive strength and shear resistance through macroscopic coverage (reducing raindrop kinetic energy and moisture retention) and microscopic extracellular polysaccharide-cemented soil particles forming a three-dimensional network. However, acidic environments induce metabolic acid release from algae, dissolving cementing materials and creating a “surface protection-internal damage” paradox. To address this, a “transparent film-biofiber-acid inhibition layer” composite biofilm design is proposed, integrating a biodegradable polylactic acid (PLA) mesh, algal attachment substrates, and calcium carbonate microparticles to dynamically neutralize acidic substances, achieving synergistic ecological protection and cultural heritage authenticity. This study provides innovative solutions for the anti-erosion protection of traditional rammed earth structures, emphasizing environmental compatibility and sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Earthen Site Conservation: Methods, Techniques, Management, and Key Case Studies)
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23 pages, 8252 KB  
Article
Analysis of Rammed Earth Wall Erosion in Traditional Village Dwellings in Zhuhai City
by Yanjun Wang, Junxin Song, Jiahao Zhang, Yue Huang and Shuai Yang
Coatings 2025, 15(5), 526; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15050526 - 28 Apr 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1067
Abstract
(1) Background: this article focuses on the durability decline problem of rammed earth buildings in Paishan Village, Zhuhai City under the influence of complex environments. It aims to reveal the erosion mechanisms of rammed earth walls caused by different environmental factors (acid rain, [...] Read more.
(1) Background: this article focuses on the durability decline problem of rammed earth buildings in Paishan Village, Zhuhai City under the influence of complex environments. It aims to reveal the erosion mechanisms of rammed earth walls caused by different environmental factors (acid rain, salt spray, humidity, biological activities, etc.), and provide a scientific basis for formulating targeted remediation strategies. (2) Methods: a technical framework combining macroscopic investigation and microscopic analysis was adopted. Ion chromatography, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and characterization (XRD) were used to study the damage to buildings in Paishan Village under the influence of different environmental factors. (3) Results: The acid rain and sulfate buildup could cause cracks and peeling on the south wall of the rammed earth wall. Salt spray and high humidity conditions exacerbated surface weathering on the west wall. Vibrant biological activity and high humidity made the north wall’s minerals easily dissolve, leaving the structure loose. The east wall was affected by the changing dynamics of carbonate rocks, which made it more vulnerable to weathering. (4) Conclusion: according to the analysis of different walls, specific steps should be taken during future restoration to improve the durability of rammed-earth buildings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Earthen Site Conservation: Methods, Techniques, Management, and Key Case Studies)
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Review

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40 pages, 16352 KB  
Review
Surface Protection Technologies for Earthen Sites in the 21st Century: Hotspots, Evolution, and Future Trends in Digitalization, Intelligence, and Sustainability
by Yingzhi Xiao, Yi Chen, Yuhao Huang and Yu Yan
Coatings 2025, 15(7), 855; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15070855 - 20 Jul 2025
Viewed by 1512
Abstract
As vital material carriers of human civilization, earthen sites are experiencing continuous surface deterioration under the combined effects of weathering and anthropogenic damage. Traditional surface conservation techniques, due to their poor compatibility and limited reversibility, struggle to address the compound challenges of micro-scale [...] Read more.
As vital material carriers of human civilization, earthen sites are experiencing continuous surface deterioration under the combined effects of weathering and anthropogenic damage. Traditional surface conservation techniques, due to their poor compatibility and limited reversibility, struggle to address the compound challenges of micro-scale degradation and macro-scale deformation. With the deep integration of digital twin technology, spatial information technologies, intelligent systems, and sustainable concepts, earthen site surface conservation technologies are transitioning from single-point applications to multidimensional integration. However, challenges remain in terms of the insufficient systematization of technology integration and the absence of a comprehensive interdisciplinary theoretical framework. Based on the dual-core databases of Web of Science and Scopus, this study systematically reviews the technological evolution of surface conservation for earthen sites between 2000 and 2025. CiteSpace 6.2 R4 and VOSviewer 1.6 were used for bibliometric visualization analysis, which was innovatively combined with manual close reading of the key literature and GPT-assisted semantic mining (error rate < 5%) to efficiently identify core research themes and infer deeper trends. The results reveal the following: (1) technological evolution follows a three-stage trajectory—from early point-based monitoring technologies, such as remote sensing (RS) and the Global Positioning System (GPS), to spatial modeling technologies, such as light detection and ranging (LiDAR) and geographic information systems (GIS), and, finally, to today’s integrated intelligent monitoring systems based on multi-source fusion; (2) the key surface technology system comprises GIS-based spatial data management, high-precision modeling via LiDAR, 3D reconstruction using oblique photogrammetry, and building information modeling (BIM) for structural protection, while cutting-edge areas focus on digital twin (DT) and the Internet of Things (IoT) for intelligent monitoring, augmented reality (AR) for immersive visualization, and blockchain technologies for digital authentication; (3) future research is expected to integrate big data and cloud computing to enable multidimensional prediction of surface deterioration, while virtual reality (VR) will overcome spatial–temporal limitations and push conservation paradigms toward automation, intelligence, and sustainability. This study, grounded in the technological evolution of surface protection for earthen sites, constructs a triadic framework of “intelligent monitoring–technological integration–collaborative application,” revealing the integration needs between DT and VR for surface technologies. It provides methodological support for addressing current technical bottlenecks and lays the foundation for dynamic surface protection, solution optimization, and interdisciplinary collaboration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Earthen Site Conservation: Methods, Techniques, Management, and Key Case Studies)
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