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Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys

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A special issue of Crystals (ISSN 2073-4352). This special issue belongs to the section "Crystalline Metals and Alloys".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2023) | Viewed by 14782

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Dr. Qing-Qiang Ren

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Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Rd., PO BOX 2008 MS6064, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
Interests: steels and iron alloys; atom probe tomography; electron microscopy; additive manufacturing; Co/Ni-based superalloys; thermodynamic simulations; ICME materials by design
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Dear Colleagues,

Structural alloys, especially steels, are one of the most important modern materials, and they are currently being used to meet various challenges all around the world. Researchers are constantly striving to develop structural alloys with better properties for engineering purposes as well as economic interests. This development heavily relies on the understanding of microstructure–property relationships, which is at the crux of materials research. The latest advances in the characterization, calculation, and simulation techniques are helping to reveal new microstructure–property relationships from the atomic/nanometer to macroscopic scales, which are the main focus of this Special Issue.

This Special Issue aims to cover the recent progress in the research field of structural alloys, targeting their use in ambient, high-temperature applications, with a focus on microstructural–property relationships, including but not limited to hardness, tensile strength, toughness, ductility, creep resistance, thermal stability and heat resistance, corrosion/oxidation resistance, fatigue, and creep fatigue. The broad scope of structural alloys means that research on a wide range of materials can be included in this issue. All aspects related to microstructural characterization, phase transformations, processing and heat treatment, strengthening mechanisms, precipitate kinetics, microstructural evolutions, simulations and numerical modelling, and materials design will be covered. Review articles that describe the current state of the art in this field are also welcome.

Dr. Qing-Qiang Ren
Guest Editor

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Keywords

steels and structural alloys
materials characterization
phase transformations
mechanical properties
heat-resistant alloys
phase transformations
thermodynamic simulations
microstructure–property relationship
materials design and development

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Related Special Issue

Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys, Second Edition in Crystals (1 article)

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 169 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Understanding Processing–Microstructure–Property Relationships of Structural Alloys

by Qing-Qiang Ren

Crystals 2024, 14(7), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14070666 - 20 Jul 2024

Viewed by 609

Abstract

Although intensively investigated for centuries, structural alloys, especially steels, continue to attract a great deal of research interest [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys)

Research

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12 pages, 5129 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Uncommon Cold-Rolling Faults in an Fe–Mn–Si–Cr Shape-Memory Alloy

by Gheorghe Bădărău, Mihai Popa, George Stoian, Ana-Maria Roman, Radu-Ioachim Comăneci, Bogdan Pricop, Nicanor Cimpoeșu and Leandru-Gheorghe Bujoreanu

Crystals 2024, 14(3), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14030250 - 2 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1386

Abstract

The paper analyzes the occurrence of evenly spaced cracks on the surface of lamellar specimens of Fe-28Mn-6Si-5Cr (mass %) shape-memory alloy (SMA), during cold rolling. The specimens were hot rolled and normalized and developed cold rolling cracks with an approximate spacing of about 1.3 mm and a depth that increased with the thickness-reduction degree. At normalized specimens, X-ray diffraction patterns revealed the presence of multiple crystallographic variants of brittle α′ body-bcc martensite, which could be the cause of cold-rolling cracking. Both normalized and cold-rolled specimens were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy SEM. SEM micrographs revealed the presence of several crystallographic variants of α′-body-centered cubic (bcc) and ε hexagonal close-packed (hcp) martensite plates within a γ-face-centered cubic (fcc) austenite matrix in a normalized state. High-resolution SEM, recorded after 25% thickness reduction by cold-rolling, emphasized the ductile character of the cracks by means of an array of multiple dimples. After additional 33% cold-rolling thickness reduction, the surface of crack walls became acicular, thus revealing the fragile character of failure. It has been argued that the specimens cracked in the neutral point but preserved their integrity owing to the ductile character of γ-fcc austenite matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys)

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23 pages, 9527 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Phase-Specific Strain Pole Figures for Duplex Steels under Elasto-Plastic Uniaxial Tension—Experiment vs. EPSC Modelling

by Samuel Pulvermacher, Florian Loebich, Andreas Prahs, Hangning Liu, Sandra Cabeza, Thilo Pirling, Michael Hofmann and Jens Gibmeier

Crystals 2024, 14(3), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14030206 - 21 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1311

Abstract

For the duplex stainless steel X2CrNiMoN22-5-3, phase-specific strain pole figures (strain PFs) for the phases ferrite (bcc) and austenite (fcc) were analysed under uniaxial tensile loading for various loading states in purely elastic and elasto-plastic regimes. Experimentally, strain PFs were determined by means of in situ neutron diffraction strain measurements under defined uniaxial loading. These experimental results were compared with strain PFs calculated using elasto-plastic self-consistent (EPSC) modelling. The comparison was performed for two different {hkl} planes per phase. While classic load stress and load partitioning analyses for multi-phase materials are often limited to the load direction and a selected direction transverse to it, the results illustrate the added value of determining a strain PF, especially when a phase-specific texture is present. The comparison with experimental data shows how well the load partitioning behaviour can be predicted using common EPSC models, using the example of a duplex stainless steel. The EPSC model used was validated with the software ISODEC in its elastic range. Based on the results of the EPSC model, and taking into account the local phase-specific crystallographic texture, a prediction can be made as to what extent intergranular stresses and phase-specific textures could affect the results of a (residual) stress analysis by means of the diffraction method. This makes it possible to assess whether, for technical applications, meaningful residual stress results can be expected in certain component directions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys)

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18 pages, 15151 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Electrical Resistance Heating on Recrystallization of Cold-Rolled Low-Carbon Steel

by Dawn Van Iderstine, Shiraz Mujahid, YubRaj Paudel and Hongjoo Rhee

Crystals 2023, 13(12), 1650; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13121650 - 30 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1420

Abstract

The “electron wind effect” has long been cited as a potential catalyst of solid-state transformations in metals, particularly when high current densities are involved. However, the literature exploring similar effects at lower current densities, such as those occurring during Gleeble thermomechanical simulation, remains scarce. The present work compares recrystallization activity in cold-rolled low-carbon steel during heat treatment by conventional furnace versus direct resistance heating (Gleeble). Multiple levels of cold work, annealing durations, and soak temperatures were examined, allowing for an in-depth comparison of recrystallization rates and activation energies between samples subjected to identical time–temperature profiles in the furnace and Gleeble. In addition to the expected increase in recrystallization behavior with the increases in temperature and cold-reduction levels, the use of the Gleeble system as the heating method resulted in faster initial microstructural transformation than a conventional furnace. The variability in recrystallized fractions persisted until the microstructures had saturated to their nearly fully recrystallized levels, at which point the microhardness and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) revealed convergence to equivalent behavior irrespective of the heating method. Analysis of the recrystallization kinetics by fitting to a JMAK relationship reflected the increased transformation activity during Gleeble treatment, with the value of the kinetic exponent also indicating greater grain growth activity at higher temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys)

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13 pages, 39142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Creep Properties of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloys

by Wen Zhang and Yunhai Su

Crystals 2023, 13(11), 1554; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13111554 - 30 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1068

Abstract

This article conducts high-temperature creep tests on an Al-6.5Zn-2.3Mg-2.5Cu-0.1Zr-0.2Sc alloy in a solid solution + aging state at 200 °C and 150–180 MPa. Characterization of the microstructure of the specimen after creep test fracture was performed using SEM and TEM. The results indicate that the steady-state creep rate range of the alloy was 10⁻⁹ to 10⁻⁸ s⁻¹, which was positively correlated with applied stress, while the creep life was negatively correlated with applied stress. Through failure analysis, it was found that the main deformation mechanism of the alloy was the dislocation climbing mechanism. The fracture mode of the alloy was ductile fracture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys)

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15 pages, 6732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fe-Mn-Al-Ni Shape Memory Alloy Additively Manufactured via Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Ismail Alhamdi, Anwar Algamal, Abdalmageed Almotari, Majed Ali, Umesh Gandhi and Ala Qattawi

Crystals 2023, 13(10), 1505; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13101505 - 17 Oct 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1780

Abstract

Fe-Mn-Al-Ni is an Fe-based shape memory alloy (SMA) featuring higher stability and low temperature dependency of superelasticity stress over a wide range of temperatures. Additive manufacturing (AM) is a promising technique for fabricating Fe-SMA with enhanced properties, which can eliminate the limitations associated with conventional fabrication and allow for the manufacture of complicated shapes with only a single-step fabrication. The current work investigates the densification behavior and fabrication window of an Fe-Mn-Al-Ni SMA using laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). Experimental optimization was performed to identify the optimum processing window parameters in terms of laser power and scanning speed to fabricate Fe-Mn-Al-Ni SMA samples. Laser remelting was also employed to improve the characteristics of Fe-Mn-Al-Ni-fabricated samples. Characterization and testing techniques were carried out to assess the densification behavior of Fe-Mn-Al-Ni to study surface roughness, density, porosity, and hardness. The findings indicated that using a laser power range of 175–200 W combined with a scanning speed of 800 mm/s within the defined processing window parameters can minimize the defects with the material and lead to decreased surface roughness, lower porosity, and higher densification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys)

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14 pages, 8015 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure Characterization and Hardening Evaluation of Ferrite/Martensitic Steels Induced by He²⁺ Irradiation

by Guangjie Zhang, Junfeng Yang, Zhuoming Xie, Linchao Zhang, Rui Liu, Meng Sun, Gang Li, Hui Wang, Yi Hu, Xuebang Wu, Qianfeng Fang, Changsong Liu and Xianping Wang

Crystals 2023, 13(9), 1308; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13091308 - 27 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1096

Abstract

Two ferrite/martensitic (F/M) steels with different Si concentrations (0 and 0.4 wt.%) were irradiated by 250 keV He²⁺ ions with different fluences of 2 × 10¹⁶ ions/cm² and 1 × 10¹⁷ ions/cm². Transmission electron microscopy and a nanoindenter were employed to investigate their microstructure evolution and irradiation hardening effects induced by high-energy He²⁺ ions. A large number of He bubbles formed in the Si-free and Si-containing F/M steels, which preferentially nucleated and grew at the lath and phase boundaries. Owing to the inhibiting effect of Si addition on He bubble growth, the He bubbles in the Si-containing sample exhibited smaller size and higher density at the same He²⁺ fluence. Nanoindenter measurement revealed that typical irradiation hardening was observed in the F/M steel, and 1/2<111> and <100> type dislocation loops formed by He²⁺ irradiation was recognized as the dominant mechanism. The addition of Si induced an increase in the number density of dislocation loops, leading to the exacerbation of the irradiation hardening, and the results are basically in agreement with the theoretical analysis based on the dispersion barrier hardening (DBH) and Friedel–Kroupa–Hirsch (FKH) models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys)

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23 pages, 10470 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Residual Stress Evolution Mechanism and Influencing Factors of 316L/Q235B Composite Plate during Solution Heat Treatment

by Xiangyun Ji, Zhimin Zhao, Changshuai Sun, Xin Liu, Rui Wang and Chunjian Su

Crystals 2023, 13(3), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13030436 - 2 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1368

Abstract

In this study, the formation and evolution mechanism of residual stress in the process of solution heat treatment of a 316L/Q235B composite plate and the influence law of different factors on residual stress were analyzed by combining experiments and simulation. The results showed that the bending stress caused by interlayer thermal stress was the main factor that formed residual stress in the process of solution heat treatment of a 316L/Q235B composite plate. Tensile load was helpful to reduce the bending deformation of the composite plate during heat treatment, and ultimately improve the uniformity of residual stress distribution in the composite plate. With the increase in the total thickness, the interlayer thermal stress and bending stress between layers increased, and the primary and secondary relationship between them and residual stress was related to the specific thickness. The composite ratio had a great influence on the distribution of residual stress. When the composite ratio increased, the interlayer thermal stress between layers of the base layer increased, while that of the cladding layer decreased. At the same time, the bending stress increased with the increase in the composite ratio, and then affected the residual stress distribution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys)

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12 pages, 3781 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crystallographic Analysis on the Upper Bainite Formation at the Austenite Grain Boundary in Fe-0.6C-0.8Mn-1.8Si Steel in the Initial Stage of Transformation

by Shotaro Jimbo and Shoichi Nambu

Crystals 2023, 13(3), 414; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13030414 - 27 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1325

Abstract

A crystallographic analysis was conducted of the upper bainite nucleated at the austenite grain boundary in Fe-0.6C-0.8Mn-1.8Si (in mass %) steel by the EBSD analysis. The effect of the character of the prior austenite grain boundary (PAGB) on the formation of upper bainite was investigated from several perspectives: PAGB plane, grain boundary energy, and so on. BFs form on both sides of the high-angle PAGBs, while BFs do not form at twin boundaries. It is suggested one of the reasons for the suppression of BF formation at twin boundaries is the lower grain boundary energy. At high-angle grain boundaries, there is no difference in the potency for BFs’ nucleation between the tilt-like PAGBs and twist-like PAGBs, and the formation of BF is not affected by the angle between the rotation axis, the PAGB plane, and grain boundary energy. The variant selection of BFs was investigated. The BFs pair, whose misorientation across the PAGB is small, is formed preferentially. When several variant pairs can form having small misorientation across the PAGB, the variant pair that can reduce the elastic strain energy preferentially forms to accommodate the shape strain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys)

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10 pages, 5354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Mechanism and Influencing Factors of Wheel Strengthening and Toughening of High-Speed and Heavy-Load Train

by Tuosheng Jia, Zhigang Shen, Cuirong Liu, Xinglong Zhao and Xiaofeng Zhang

Crystals 2023, 13(1), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13010081 - 2 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1286

Abstract

When maximum speed of 160 km/h is reached and the axle load reaches 25–30 tons, the train wheels need to have high strength and toughness. The main chemical elements affecting the strength and toughness of the wheel were determined by the mechanical features of the samples with different chemical compositions. Through analysis of the impact fracture of typical specimens, the difference of wheel toughness was mainly reflected in the dimple band, crack source, and cleavage pattern. By SEM analysis of fracture cracks, the critical size difference was found to exist between the grains during brittle fracture, where the intergranular fracture between grains of different sizes is mainly due to the different interfacial stresses between grains of different sizes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys)

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Other

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8 pages, 6447 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Interfacial Characterization of Selective Laser Melting of a SS316L/NiTi Multi-Material with a High-Entropy Alloy Interlayer

by Arseniy Repnin, Artem Kim and Anatoliy Popovich

Crystals 2023, 13(10), 1486; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13101486 - 12 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1279

Abstract

Some multi-materials produced via SLM and containing 316L steel may exhibit defects and cracks in the interfacial zone. There is a lack of research on 316L/NiTi multi-materials with an interlayer produced via SLM. This study aims to investigate the influence of a high-entropy alloy (HEA)—CoCrFeNiMn interlayer on the defects’ formation, microstructure, phase, and chemical compositions, as well as the hardness of the interfacial zone. It was concluded that using of high-entropy alloy as an interlayer in the production of 316L/HEA/NiTi multi-material via SLM is questionable, since numerous cracks and limited pores occurred in the HEA/NiTi interfacial zone. The interfacial zone has an average size of 100–200 μm. Microstructure studies indicate that island macrosegregation is formed in the interfacial zone. The analysis of phase, chemical composition, and hardness demonstrates that a small amount of FeTi may form in the island macrosegregation. The increase in iron content in this area could be the reason for this. The interfacial zone has a microhardness of about 430 HV, and in the island macrosegregation, the microhardness increases to about 550 HV. Further research could involve an in-depth analysis of the phase and chemical composition, as well as examining other metals and alloys as interlayers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure and Properties of Steels and Other Structural Alloys)

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