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Marine Drugs
Special Issues
Green Extraction and Fermentation Processes for Obtaining Marine Bioactive Products
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Green Extraction and Fermentation Processes for Obtaining Marine Bioactive Products

A special issue of Marine Drugs (ISSN 1660-3397).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2023) | Viewed by 25240

Special Issue Editors

Dr. M. Teresa Cesário

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences and Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
Interests: seaweed biorefinery; seaweed protein ingredients; halophilic marine bacteria; polyhydroxyalkanoates; seaweed lactic acid fermentation
Dr. Cristina M.R. Rocha

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
CEB-Centre of Biological Engineering, Campus de Gualtar, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
Interests: sustainable extraction tecnologies; algae-based ingredients; by-products’ valorization; algae pretreatments

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Marine biomass such as marine bacteria, marine fungi, and micro and macroalgae has a highly diverse composition. Some of its components are bioactive secondary metabolites produced to adapt to rapidly changing environmental conditions of salinity, temperature, nutrients, water content, high irradiation, and UV light. This biomass thus represents a rich and sustainable source of bioactive molecules with huge application potential in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. Described health benefits include anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-cancer, and anti-coagulant properties.

However, designing sustainable strategies for recovering bioactive fractions without impairing functionality is still a challenging task. The extraction of bioactive compounds implies the separation from their matrices minimizing the co-extraction of other components while looking for high extraction efficiency. Green extraction technologies have been developed to attain maximum product recovery while reducing toxic residues and diminishing environmental burdens.

In the case of algae, the separation of bioactive compounds is hindered by the complex algae cell wall composed of a network of polysaccharides, proteins, and polyphenols. In food and feed applications, an alternative to extraction is fermentation. Fermentation uses microorganisms to promote the hydrolysis of these complex macromolecules, breaking them down to smaller units and stimulating the release of bioactive molecules. Moreover, during fermentation, other compounds with bioactive properties might be synthesized by the fermenting microorganisms.

This Special Issue is dedicated to discussing relevant aspects of extraction and fermentation technologies, towards sustainable green processes for benefiting of bioactive compounds found in marine biomass, including micro and macroalgae, marine microbes, and marine by-products. Marine animals are excluded. We invite authors to submit review papers, research articles, and short opinion articles.

Dr. M. Teresa Cesário
Dr. Cristina M.R. Rocha
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Marine Drugs is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • bioactive compounds
  • green extraction
  • biorefinery
  • seaweeds
  • microalgae
  • marine biomass
  • cyanobacteria
  • algae fermentation
  • marine microorganisms

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 7090 KiB  
Article
Isolation and Characterization of a Serratia rubidaea from a Shallow Water Hydrothermal Vent
by Ricardo F. S. Pereira, Maria J. Ferreira, M. Conceição Oliveira, Maria C. Serra and Carla C. C. R. de Carvalho
Mar. Drugs 2023, 21(12), 599; https://doi.org/10.3390/md21120599 - 21 Nov 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2056
Abstract
Microbial life present in the marine environment has to be able to adapt to rapidly changing and often extreme conditions. This makes these organisms a putative source of commercially interesting compounds since adaptation provides different biochemical routes from those found in their terrestrial [...] Read more.
Microbial life present in the marine environment has to be able to adapt to rapidly changing and often extreme conditions. This makes these organisms a putative source of commercially interesting compounds since adaptation provides different biochemical routes from those found in their terrestrial counterparts. In this work, the goal was the identification of a marine bacterium isolated from a sample taken at a shallow water hydrothermal vent and of its red product. Genomic, lipidomic, and biochemical approaches were used simultaneously, and the bacterium was identified as Serratia rubidaea. A high-throughput screening strategy was used to assess the best physico-chemical conditions permitting both cell growth and production of the red product. The fatty acid composition of the microbial cells was studied to assess adaptation at the lipid level under stressful conditions, whilst several state-of-the-art techniques, such as DSC, FTIR, NMR, and Ultra-High Resolution Qq-Time-of-Flight mass spectrometry, were used to characterize the structure of the pigment. We hypothesize that the pigment, which could be produced by the cells up to 62 °C, is prodigiosin linked to an aliphatic compound that acts as an anchor to keep it close to the cells in the marine environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Extraction and Fermentation Processes for Obtaining Marine Bioactive Products)
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17 pages, 2862 KiB  
Article
Ulva rigida Valorization into Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate), Organic Acids and Functional Ingredients
by Tânia Leandro, Marco Teles, Joana S. Gomes-Dias, Mafalda Marques, Cristina M. R. Rocha, M. Manuela R. da Fonseca and M. Teresa Cesário
Mar. Drugs 2023, 21(10), 537; https://doi.org/10.3390/md21100537 - 14 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2095
Abstract
Halomonas elongata 1H9T is a moderate halophilic strain able to produce poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (P(3HB)), a biodegradable plastic, and gluconic acid, a valuable organic acid with wide industrial applications. In this work, the green alga Ulva rigida was used as platform to produce cultivation [...] Read more.
Halomonas elongata 1H9T is a moderate halophilic strain able to produce poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (P(3HB)), a biodegradable plastic, and gluconic acid, a valuable organic acid with wide industrial applications. In this work, the green alga Ulva rigida was used as platform to produce cultivation substrates for microbial conversion as well as functional ingredients, targeting its full valorization. The liquor obtained by autohydrolysis presented the highest concentration of oligosaccharides and protein, being an interesting feedstock to produce functional ingredients. The acid and/or enzymatic hydrolysis liquors are adequate as substrates for microbial processes. Shake flask assays with H. elongata revealed that the N-rich liquor produced after acidic treatment was the best suited for cell growth while the N-poor liquor produced by the enzymatic treatment of acid-pretreated algae residues produced the highest P(3HB) titers of 4.4 g/L. These hydrolysates were used in fed-batch cultivations as carbon and protein sources for the co-production of gluconic acid and polymer achieving titers of 123.2 g/L and 7.2 g/L, respectively. Besides gluconic acid, the Krebs cycle intermediate 2-oxoglutaric acid, also called alpha-ketoglutaric acid (KGA), was produced. Therefore, the co-production of P(3HB) and acids may be of considerable interest as an algal biorefinery valorization strategy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Extraction and Fermentation Processes for Obtaining Marine Bioactive Products)
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20 pages, 2950 KiB  
Article
Emerging Technologies to Extract Fucoxanthin from Undaria pinnatifida: Microwave vs. Ultrasound Assisted Extractions
by Catarina Lourenço-Lopes, Anxo Carreira-Casais, Maria Carperna, Marta Barral-Martinez, Franklin Chamorro, Cecilia Jiménez-López, Lucia Cassani, Jesus Simal-Gandara and Miguel A. Prieto
Mar. Drugs 2023, 21(5), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/md21050282 - 28 Apr 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3314
Abstract
Macroalgae are an extensive resource for the obtention of bioactive compounds, mainly phenolic compounds, phlorotannins, and pigments. Fucoxanthin (Fx) is the most abundant pigment present in brown algae and has shown several useful bioactivities that can be used to fortify products in the [...] Read more.
Macroalgae are an extensive resource for the obtention of bioactive compounds, mainly phenolic compounds, phlorotannins, and pigments. Fucoxanthin (Fx) is the most abundant pigment present in brown algae and has shown several useful bioactivities that can be used to fortify products in the food and cosmetic industries. Nevertheless, to date, there is still insufficient literature reporting on the extraction yield of Fx from U. pinnatifida species from green technologies. In this regard, the present study aims to optimize the extraction conditions to obtain the highest Fx yield from U. pinnatifida through emerging techniques, namely microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE). These methods will be compared with the conventional methodologies of heat-assisted extraction (HAE) and Soxhlet-assisted extraction (SAE). According to our results, even though the extraction yield could be slightly higher when using MAE than UAE, the Fx concentration obtained from the alga was double when using UAE. Thus, the Fx ratio in the final extract reached values of 124.39 mg Fx/g E. However, the optimal conditions should also be considered since UAE needed 30 min to perform the extraction, whereas MAE was able to obtain 58.83 mg Fx/g E in only 3 min and 2 bar, meaning less energy expenditure and minimum cost function. To our knowledge, this study obtains the highest concentrations of Fx ever reported (58.83 mg Fx/g E for MAE and 124.39 mg Fx/g E for UAE), with low energy consumption and short times (3.00 min for MAE and 35.16 min for UAE). Any of these results could be selected for further experiments and proposed for industrial scaling-up. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Extraction and Fermentation Processes for Obtaining Marine Bioactive Products)
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17 pages, 31868 KiB  
Article
Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Carrageenan from Sarcopeltis skottsbergii
by Milena Álvarez-Viñas, Sandra Rivas, María Dolores Torres and Herminia Domínguez
Mar. Drugs 2023, 21(2), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/md21020083 - 25 Jan 2023
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2715
Abstract
The development of greener processes for the sustainable utilization of raw materials is increasingly demanded for environmental and economic reasons. A rapid and chemical-free technique was proposed for the extraction of hybrid kappa/iota (6/4) carrageenan from Sarcopeltis (ex Gigartina) skottsbergii. [...] Read more.
The development of greener processes for the sustainable utilization of raw materials is increasingly demanded for environmental and economic reasons. A rapid and chemical-free technique was proposed for the extraction of hybrid kappa/iota (6/4) carrageenan from Sarcopeltis (ex Gigartina) skottsbergii. After separation, carrageenans were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared attenuated total reflectance, high-performance size-exclusion chromatography, and rheology. Maximum carrageenan extraction yields up to 63–64% were obtained operating at 110 or at 160 °C, for 5–7 min considering the sum of the heating and cooling periods, but the extraction of the phenolic fraction was favored at 220 °C. The recovered carrageenan showed apparent viscous values around 103 mPa at the lowest tested shear rates (0.1 1/s) and could be suitable to formulate films. Furthermore, those carrageenans obtained under 140 °C showed gel characteristics without previous separation from the liquid extract, avoiding ethanolic precipitation and energy consumption. The antiradical properties correlated with the phenolic content in the liquid phase, but no influence of temperature on the reducing properties was observed. The microwave-assisted hydrothermal treatment could be an efficient tool without needing chemicals for the extraction of carrageenans, which showed adequate rheological properties for commercial uses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Extraction and Fermentation Processes for Obtaining Marine Bioactive Products)
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19 pages, 2321 KiB  
Article
Bio-Guided Optimization of Cystoseira abies-marina Cosmeceuticals Extraction by Advanced Technologies
by Gonçalo P. Rosa, Andreia F. Peixoto, Maria Carmo Barreto, Ana M. L. Seca and Diana C. G. A. Pinto
Mar. Drugs 2023, 21(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/md21010035 - 31 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2247
Abstract
Cystoseira abies-marina (reclassified as Gongolaria abies-marina) is a brown seaweed species rich in meroterpenoids, presenting interesting antioxidant, antitumor, and anti-inflammatory activities. However, there is still a lot to uncover regarding the bioactive potential of this species, as evidenced by the lack of [...] Read more.
Cystoseira abies-marina (reclassified as Gongolaria abies-marina) is a brown seaweed species rich in meroterpenoids, presenting interesting antioxidant, antitumor, and anti-inflammatory activities. However, there is still a lot to uncover regarding the bioactive potential of this species, as evidenced by the lack of records of antiaging activities from Cystoseira abies-marina, making this macroalga an excellent candidate for studies of its cosmeceutical potential. Ultrasound-(UAE) and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) are advanced sustainable technologies that are very efficient in enhancing bioactive compound extraction. Applying these extraction techniques to a new biological matrix often calls for optimizing the parameters toward the best extraction yield. Since Cystoseira abies-marina is a new matrix for both UAE and MAE techniques, the present work proposes the optimization of the extraction process, using a novel approach: instead of only focusing on increasing the yield, the goal of this work is to determine the parameters for UAE and MAE that lead to extracts with better antiaging activities. For this bio-guided approach, several Cystoseira abies-marina extracts were prepared by UAE and MAE under varying conditions of solvent, time, and algae/solvent ratios. Their antiaging activities were then determined, and all the results combined to unveil the conditions yielding extracts with higher cosmeceutical potential. Using statistical tools, it was found that, for UAE, the best conditions were ethyl acetate, 15 min, and a ratio of 1:4, which led to an extract with high yield, and causing the strong inhibition of tyrosinase and elastase. In turn, ethanol, 10 min, and a ratio of 1:4 were the best conditions for MAE, leading to the extract with the best antioxidant activity. The results show that the proposed bio-guided approach was effective in obtaining extracts with high cosmeceutical potential, unveiling the possibility of modulating an extract’s activity by changing the extraction method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Extraction and Fermentation Processes for Obtaining Marine Bioactive Products)
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15 pages, 2838 KiB  
Article
Alternative Solvents for the Biorefinery of Spirulina: Impact of Pretreatment on Free Fatty Acids with High Added Value
by Laura Wils, Mervé Yagmur, Myriam Phelippe, Bénédicte Montigny, Barbara Clément-Larosière, Johan Jacquemin and Leslie Boudesocque-Delaye
Mar. Drugs 2022, 20(10), 600; https://doi.org/10.3390/md20100600 - 25 Sep 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2403
Abstract
The growing demand for molecules of interest from microalgal biomass, such as phycobiliproteins, has led to an accumulation of unused by-products. For example, phycocyanin, obtained by the extraction of Spirulina, generated cakes rich in non-polar molecules of interest, such as free fatty acids [...] Read more.
The growing demand for molecules of interest from microalgal biomass, such as phycobiliproteins, has led to an accumulation of unused by-products. For example, phycocyanin, obtained by the extraction of Spirulina, generated cakes rich in non-polar molecules of interest, such as free fatty acids (FFAs). These FFAs were generally considered as markers of lipidome degradation, but represented a relevant alternative to topical antibiotics, based on a biomimetic approach. In order to develop a sustainable Spirulina biorefinery scheme, different pretreatments and alternative solvents were screened to identify the best combination for the valorization of FFAs. Thus, five pre-treatments were studied including a phycocyanin extraction by-product. The following three biobased solvents were selected: ethyl acetate (EtOAc), dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and a fatty acid-based natural deep eutectic solvent (NaDES). The pigment and fatty acid profiles were established by spectroscopic and chromatographic approaches. NaDES demonstrated superior extraction capacity and selectivity compared to other biobased solvents, regardless of pretreatment. In contrast, EtOAc and DMC showed a greater diversity of FFAs, with a predominance of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The by-product has also been highlighted as a relevant raw material facilitating the recovery of FFAs. These results pave the way for a green biorefinery of the lipid fraction and phycobiliproteins of microalgae. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Extraction and Fermentation Processes for Obtaining Marine Bioactive Products)
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Review

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40 pages, 1631 KiB  
Review
A Critical Comparison of the Advanced Extraction Techniques Applied to Obtain Health-Promoting Compounds from Seaweeds
by Eva Quitério, Clara Grosso, Ricardo Ferraz, Cristina Delerue-Matos and Cristina Soares
Mar. Drugs 2022, 20(11), 677; https://doi.org/10.3390/md20110677 - 28 Oct 2022
Cited by 73 | Viewed by 7992
Abstract
Marine macroalgae are rich in bioactive compounds that can be applied in several fields, mainly food, cosmetics, and medicine. The health-promoting effects of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, polysaccharides, carotenoids, proteins, and fatty acids, have been increasingly explored, especially regarding their antioxidant activity [...] Read more.
Marine macroalgae are rich in bioactive compounds that can be applied in several fields, mainly food, cosmetics, and medicine. The health-promoting effects of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, polysaccharides, carotenoids, proteins, and fatty acids, have been increasingly explored, especially regarding their antioxidant activity and improvement in human health. To extract these valuable compounds, advanced technologies that include Supercritical-Fluid Extraction (SFE), Pressurised-Liquid Extraction (PLE), Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE), Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE), Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE), Ultrasound-Microwave-Assisted Extraction (UMAE) and Liquefied Gas Extraction (LGE) have been assessed due to their notable advantages over the conventional methods (Solid–Liquid and Soxhlet extraction). These advanced techniques are considerably influenced by different extraction parameters such as temperature, pressure, type of solvent, extraction time, solvent:solid material ratio, power (MAE, UAE, and UMAE), enzymes used (EAE), and factors related to the macroalgae matrix itself. Optimizing these process parameters for each method is critical to obtain better efficiency results for the targeted bioactive compounds. Macroalgae are natural sources with undeniable beneficial effects on human health. In this context, optimising the extraction techniques discussed in this review should prioritise exploiting these valuable resources’ wide range of bioactive properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Extraction and Fermentation Processes for Obtaining Marine Bioactive Products)
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