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Minerals
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The Formation and Evolution of Gold Deposits in China
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The Formation and Evolution of Gold Deposits in China

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Deposits".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2024) | Viewed by 7623

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Wenyan He

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: magmatic–hydrothermal mineralization; lithospheric architecture
Dr. Liang Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Gemmology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: orogenic gold deposits; structural control on gold mineralization; low-temperature thermochronology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Nan Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: gold deposit; west Qinling; ore deposit geology and geochemistry; ore-forming processes
Dr. Xue Gao

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: lithospheric architecture; porphyry polymetal system; granite-related metallogeny
Dr. Xiangfei Zhang

E-Mail
Guest Editor
Chengdu Center, China Geological Survey, Ministry of Natural Resources, Chengdu 610218, China
Interests: regional metallogenesis

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

With the discovery of many large and super-large-load gold deposits in China over the last 20 years, the country's annual gold production has increased significantly from approximately 180 t in 1999 to 370 t in 2021, becoming one of the biggest gold producers in the world. The common genetic types of Chinese gold deposits are varied, including epithermal, porphyry, skarn, Carlin, and orogenic deposits. Although intensive investigations and/or studies have been conducted on these deposits, the mechanisms controlling the formation and distribution of some types of deposits and giant metallogenic belts still remain controversial.

For this Special Issue of Minerals, we invite contributions that integrate advances in the characterization, genesis, and exploration of various gold deposits from major gold provinces in China. This Special Issue seeks to enrich our knowledge of the formation and evolution of gold deposits in China.

Dr. Wenyan He
Dr. Liang Zhang
Dr. Nan Li
Dr. Xue Gao
Dr. Xiangfei Zhang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • gold
  • China
  • mineralization mechanism
  • metallogeny

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 15395 KiB  
Article
The Weideshan Batholith and Felsic Dykes in the Eastern Jiaodong Peninsula: Is There Any Possible Relation to Gold Mineralization?
by Leilei Dong and Zhonghua Tian
Minerals 2024, 14(12), 1270; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14121270 - 13 Dec 2024
Viewed by 339
Abstract
The genetic link between Weideshan-type rocks and gold mineralization in the Jiaodong Peninsula remains unclear. In this study, we examined the geochemical characteristics, water content, and oxidation states of Weideshan-type rocks and associated felsic dykes to assess the potential of a Weideshan-type batholith [...] Read more.
The genetic link between Weideshan-type rocks and gold mineralization in the Jiaodong Peninsula remains unclear. In this study, we examined the geochemical characteristics, water content, and oxidation states of Weideshan-type rocks and associated felsic dykes to assess the potential of a Weideshan-type batholith in directly contributing the fluids responsible for extensive gold mineralization. The findings reveal that the emplacement timing of Weideshan-type magmatic rocks in the Jiaodong Peninsula is slightly different from the timing of gold mineralization. Additionally, high zircon Eu/Eu* values indicate a relatively high water content within the Weideshan batholith. However, due to limited data on crystallization pressures, it remains equivocal whether water was saturated during the emplacement of the Weideshan batholith. Even if fluid saturation did occur, the magmatic oxidation states of Weideshan-type rocks are notably high (>FMQ + 1.5), which is incompatible with the reduced mineral assemblages typical of Jiaodong gold deposits. Therefore, our study suggests that the genetic link between gold mineralization and Weideshan-period granitic magmatism may be weak. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evolution of Gold Deposits in China)
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21 pages, 13736 KiB  
Article
Gold Mineralization at the Syenite-Hosted Anwangshan Gold Deposit, Western Qinling Orogen, Central China
by Wenyuan Chen, Zhibo Yan, Jin Yuan, Yuanyuan Zhao, Xinyu Xu, Liqiang Sun, Xinbiao Lü and Jian Ma
Minerals 2024, 14(10), 1057; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14101057 - 21 Oct 2024
Viewed by 927
Abstract
The Anwangshan gold deposit is located in the northwestern part of the Fengtai Basin, Western Qinling Orogen (WQO). The gold ore is hosted within quartz syenite and its contact zone. The U–Pb weighted mean age of the quartz syenite is 231 ± 1.8 [...] Read more.
The Anwangshan gold deposit is located in the northwestern part of the Fengtai Basin, Western Qinling Orogen (WQO). The gold ore is hosted within quartz syenite and its contact zone. The U–Pb weighted mean age of the quartz syenite is 231 ± 1.8 Ma. It is characterized by high potassium (K2O = 10.13%, K2O/Na2O > 1) and high magnesium (Mg# = 55.31 to 72.78) content, enriched in large ion lithophile elements (Th, U, and Ba) and light rare earth elements (LREE), with a typical “TNT” (Ti, Nb, and Ta) deficiency. The geochemical features and Hf isotope compositions (εHf(t) = −6.68 to +2.25) suggest that the quartz syenite would form from partial melting of an enriched lithospheric mantle under an extensional setting. Three generations of gold mineralization have been identified, including the quartz–sericite–pyrite (Py1) stage I, the quartz–pyrite (Py2)–polymetallic sulfide–early calcite stage II, and the epidote–late calcite stage III. In situ sulfur isotope analysis of pyrite shows that Py1 (δ34S = −1.1 to +3.8‰) possesses mantle sulfur characteristics. However, Py2 has totally different δ34S (+5.1 to +6.7‰), which lies between the typical orogenic gold deposits in the WQO (δ34S = +8 to +12‰) and mantle sulfur. This suggests a mixed source of metamorphosed sediments and magmatic sulfur during stage II gold mineralization. The fluid inclusions in auriferous quartz have three different types, including the liquid-rich phase type, pure (gas or liquid)-phase type, and daughter-minerals-bearing phase type. Multiple-stage fluid inclusions indicate that the ore fluids are medium-temperature (concentrated at 220 to 270 °C), medium-salinity (7.85 to 13.80% NaCleq) CO2–H2O–NaCl systems. The salinity is quite different from typical orogenic gold deposits in WQO and worldwide, and this is more likely to be a mixture of magmatic and metamorphic fluids as well. In summary, the quartz syenite should have not only a spatio-temporal but also a genetical relationship with the Anwangshan gold deposit. It could provide most of the gold and ore fluids at the first stage, with metamorphic fluids and/or gold joining in during the later stages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evolution of Gold Deposits in China)
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19 pages, 8741 KiB  
Article
Genesis of Xinjiazui Gold Deposit: In Situ Geochemical Constraints from Arsenopyrite
by Ji Liu, Shaolei Kou, Zhanbin Wang, Yixiang Zhang, Yuan Pan, Dongping Ji, Yuan Tian, Hao Chen and Chao Gao
Minerals 2024, 14(10), 1031; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14101031 - 15 Oct 2024
Viewed by 637
Abstract
The Xinjiazui gold deposit marks a notable significance in prospecting within the Back-Longmenshan tectonic belt, located on the northwest margin of the Yangtze Block, China. Despite the extensive studies conducted on this deposit, the source of the ore-forming materials remains unclear, leading to [...] Read more.
The Xinjiazui gold deposit marks a notable significance in prospecting within the Back-Longmenshan tectonic belt, located on the northwest margin of the Yangtze Block, China. Despite the extensive studies conducted on this deposit, the source of the ore-forming materials remains unclear, leading to ongoing debates regarding the genesis of this deposit. This study analyzed in situ (EPMA and LA-ICP-MS) trace elements and S-Pb isotopes of arsenopyrite, solely from the principal metallogenic stage and paragenetic with native gold. The results show that the gold in arsenopyrite occurs as invisible gold (Au3+), with an average concentration of 9.38 ppm, whereas the concentrations of magma-related elements, such as W, Sn, Mo, and Bi, are very low. The sulfur isotopes (34S) of arsenopyrite range from 8.32‰ to 10.16‰, aligning closely with the deep metamorphic basement (Pt3l). Meanwhile, the lead isotopes in arsenopyrite display characteristics typical of those found in orogenic belts. A comprehensive analysis of the abundance of gold indicated that the metallogenic materials (sulfur and gold) primarily originated from Pt3l. Additionally, the arsenopyrite thermobarometer indicated that the Xinjiazui gold deposit formed in a medium–low-temperature, medium metallogenic environment (5.57–8.69 km), with a sulfur fugacity (log f (S2)) below −8.4. Combined with previous research results, this study proposes that the Xinjiazui gold deposit is a subduction-related mesozonal orogenic gold deposit. In gold prospecting and exploration in the Back-Longmenshan tectonic belt, it is essential to focus on the distribution of brittle-ductile shear zones and location of the quartz veins associated with pyrite and arsenopyrite mineralization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evolution of Gold Deposits in China)
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22 pages, 12515 KiB  
Article
Application of Machine Learning to Characterize Metallogenic Potential Based on Trace Elements of Zircon: A Case Study of the Tethyan Domain
by Jin Guo and Wen-Yan He
Minerals 2024, 14(9), 945; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090945 - 16 Sep 2024
Viewed by 917
Abstract
Amidst the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence and information technology, the emergence of big data and machine learning provides a new research paradigm for mineral exploration. Focusing on the Tethyan metallogenic domain, this paper conducted a series of research works based on machine [...] Read more.
Amidst the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence and information technology, the emergence of big data and machine learning provides a new research paradigm for mineral exploration. Focusing on the Tethyan metallogenic domain, this paper conducted a series of research works based on machine learning methods to explore the critical geochemical element signals that affect the metallogenic potential of porphyry deposits and reveal the metallogenic regularity. Binary classifiers based on random forest, XGBoost, and deep neural network are established to distinguish zircon fertility, and these machine learning methods achieve higher accuracy, exceeding 90%, compared with the traditional geochemical methods. Based on the random forest and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) algorithms, key chemical element characteristics conducive to magmatic mineralization are revealed. In addition, a deposit classification model was constructed, and the t-SNE method was used to visualize the differences in zircon trace element characteristics between porphyry deposits of different mineralization types. The study highlights the promise of machine learning algorithms in metallogenic potential assessment and mineral exploration by comparing them with traditional chemical methods, providing insights into future mineral classification models utilizing sub-mineral geochemical data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evolution of Gold Deposits in China)
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23 pages, 5287 KiB  
Article
Hydrothermal Alteration Processes of Xincheng Gold Deposit Jiaodong Peninsula, China: Constraints from Composition of Hydrothermal Rutile
by Zhen-Jun Liu, Li-Qiang Yang, Dong Xie, Wei Yang, Da-Peng Li, Tao Feng and Jun Deng
Minerals 2024, 14(4), 417; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14040417 - 18 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1779
Abstract
Delineating the process of hydrothermal alteration is crucial for effectively enhancing exploration strategies and better understanding the gold mineralization process. Rutile, with its capacity to accommodate a wide range of trace elements including high-field-strength elements and base metals, serves as a reliable fluid [...] Read more.
Delineating the process of hydrothermal alteration is crucial for effectively enhancing exploration strategies and better understanding the gold mineralization process. Rutile, with its capacity to accommodate a wide range of trace elements including high-field-strength elements and base metals, serves as a reliable fluid tracer in ore systems. As one of the most significant gold ore concentrations globally, Jiaodong boasts a gold reserve exceeding 5500 t. The Xincheng gold deposit is a world-class high-grade mine, boasting a proven gold reserve exceeding 200 t, and stands as one of the largest altered-type gold deposits in the vast gold province of the Jiaodong Peninsula, Eastern China. In this study, rutile (Rt1,2,3) was identified in the K-feldspar alteration, sericitization, and pyrite–sericite–quartz alteration stages of the Xincheng gold deposit in Jiaodong based on petrographic characteristics. Rt1 coexists with hydrothermal K-feldspar and quartz, while Rt2 coexists with minerals such as sericite, quartz, muscovite, and pyrite. Rt3 is widely distributed in hydrothermal veins and is primarily associated with minerals including quartz, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and sericite. Raman spectroscopy, EPMA, and LA-ICP-MS analysis were conducted to investigate the characteristics and evolution of altered hydrothermal fluids. This study indicates that the Zr vs. W and Nb/V vs. W diagrams suggest that Rt1 is of magmatic–hydrothermal origin, while Rt2 and Rt3 are of metamorphic–hydrothermal origin. Notably, the W content in Rt2 and Rt3 is significantly higher than in Rt1 (<100 ppm), suggesting a close relationship between the W content in rutile and mineralization. The three types of rutile exhibit significantly different concentrations of trace elements such as W, V, Nb, Zr, Sn, and Fe, displaying distinct bright spots and elemental zoning characteristics in backscattered electron images and surface scans. These features arise from the isomorphic substitution of Ti4+. While Rt1 exhibits no significant element exchange with the hydrothermal fluids, Rt2 and Rt3 show a stronger substitution of W, Nb, V, and Fe, indicating a gradual enrichment of F and Cl in the fluids. This process activates and transports these elements into the fluids, leading to their continuous accumulation within the system. From Rt1 to Rt3, the increasing concentrations of Fe and W, along with the negative Eu anomaly, suggest a decrease in fluid temperature and oxygen fugacity during the alteration and mineralization process. The gradual increase in the contents of REEs and high-field-strength elements such as W, V, Nb, and Sn indicates that the hydrothermal fluids are enriched in F and Cl, exhibiting weak acidity. The nature of the fluids during hydrothermal alteration is closely related to the composition of rutile, making it a promising tool for studying hydrothermal alteration and related mineralization processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evolution of Gold Deposits in China)
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26 pages, 45411 KiB  
Article
Metallogenic Difference between the Late Aptian Nansu and Aishan Pluton in Jiaodong: Constraints from In Situ Apatite Elemental and Nd Isotopic Composition
by Kexin Li, Liqiang Yang, Lei Ju and Dong Xie
Minerals 2024, 14(4), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14040372 - 31 Mar 2024
Viewed by 1391
Abstract
A series of Mo-polymetallic deposits have been developed in the Jiaodong Peninsula. Notably, these Mo-dominant deposits formed essentially during the same period as the well-known world-class Au deposits in this area, hinting at a potentially unique geological correlation between them. Therefore, conducting thorough [...] Read more.
A series of Mo-polymetallic deposits have been developed in the Jiaodong Peninsula. Notably, these Mo-dominant deposits formed essentially during the same period as the well-known world-class Au deposits in this area, hinting at a potentially unique geological correlation between them. Therefore, conducting thorough research on Mo deposits in Jiaodong holds significant importance in exploring the area’s controlling factors of Mesozoic metal endowments. To reveal the petrogenesis and metallogenic potentials of Mo-fertile and ore-barren granitoid, apatite grains from the Late Aptian Nansu granodiorite and Aishan monzogranite are investigated in this study. Detailed petrographical observations, combined with in situ analysis of electron probe micro-analyzer (EPMA) and Laser-ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), have been conducted on apatite grains from the Nansu and Aishan plutons. This comprehensive analysis, encompassing both major and trace elements as well as isotopic characteristics of apatite, aims to elucidate the metallogenic differences within the late Early Cretaceous granitoids of Jiaodong. The results reveal that the apatite grains across all samples belong to fluorapatites, suggesting their magmatic origin. Additionally, chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns of apatites in ore-fertile and ore-barren granitoids exhibit a “right-leaning” trend, characterized by relative enrichments in light REEs and depletions in heavy REEs. Both the Nansu and Aishan plutons exhibit moderately negative Eu anomalies (with averages δEu values of 0.44 and 0.51, respectively), along with slightly positive Ce anomalies (averaging δCe values of 1.08 and 1.11, respectively). A negative correlation is observed between their δEu and δCe values, indicating that the parental magmas of ore-fertile and ore-barren granitoids were formed in a relatively oxidizing environment. The calculated apatite OH contents for the Nansu pluton range from 0.26 to 1.38, while those for the Aishan pluton vary between 0.24 and 1.51, indicating comparable melt H2O abundances. Consequently, the results suggest that neither the oxygen fugacities nor the water contents of the parental magma can account for the metallogenic differences between Nansu and Aishan plutons. The apatite in the Nansu pluton exhibits a higher Ce/Pb ratio and a relatively lower Th/U ratio, indicating the involvement of a greater volume of fluids in the magmatic evolution process of this ore-bearing granitoid. Apatite grains sourced from the Nansu and Aishan plutons exhibit εNd(t) values ranging from −16.63 to −17.61 (t = 115.7 Ma) and −17.86 to −20.86 (t = 116.8 Ma), respectively. These results suggest that their parental magmas primarily originated from the partial melting of Precambrian metamorphic basement rocks within the North China Craton, with a minor contribution from mantle-derived materials. Additionally, the presence of mafic microgranular enclaves in both the Nansu and Aishan plutons indicates that both have undergone magma mixing processes. The binary diagrams plotting the ratios of Ba/Th, Sr/Th, and U/Th against La/Sm demonstrate that apatite grains of ore-fertile granitoid exhibit a distinct trend towards sediment melting. This suggests the potential incorporation of sedimentary materials, particularly those rich in molybdenum, into the magmatic source of the Nansu pluton, ultimately leading to the occurrence of molybdenum mineralization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evolution of Gold Deposits in China)
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