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Minerals
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Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Oil Shale
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Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Oil Shale

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (26 February 2022) | Viewed by 15119

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Alvar Soesoo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Department of Geology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, 50090 Tartu, Estonia
2. Institute of Geology, Tallinn University of Technology, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia
Interests: earth resources; black shale metallogeny; modeling of geological processes; rare Earth elements; geochemistry; petrology; geo-resources and green transformation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In a broad meaning, oil shale is defined as a fine­grained sedimentary rock containing organic matter that yields economic amounts of energy (heat, oil, and gas). There are more than 600 known oil shale deposits around the world. A large number of deposits need more geological exploration to determine their potential as a resource. It is known that the world oil shales ranges widely in mineral composition, organic matter, and metal contents. The age of deposits ranges from Cambrian to Tertiary, and the deposit sizes vary too. Some metal-enriched organic-rich shales are known as black shale and are used for the extraction of technologically critical metals. In the frame of increased global awareness of environmental protection, climate issues, and sustainable development, the rising technical and socioeconomic question is how to use oil shale in a cleaner, more sustainable manner in the production of more efficient and economically valued products. We welcome geochemical and mineralogical studies of known and new oil shale and black shale deposits and related utilization subjects. We hope that this Special Issue will contribute to knowledge about the geochemistry and mineralogy of the world’s oil shales, organic-rich black shales, and offer new utilization prospects.

Prof. Dr. Alvar Soesoo
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • mineralogy and geochemistry of the world’s oil shale types
  • geology, mineralogy, and geochemistry of new oil shale reserves
  • critical and other metals in oil shale and black shale
  • low-grade oil shale, black shales, and their metallogeny
  • new prospects in oil shale usage
  • mineralogy and geochemistry of oil shale and black shale waste

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 3139 KiB  
Article
Geochemical Reconstruction of the Provenance, Tectonic Setting and Paleoweathering of Lower Paleozoic Black Shales from Northern Europe
by Sylvester Ofili, Alvar Soesoo, Elena G. Panova, Rutt Hints, Sigrid Hade and Leho Ainsaar
Minerals 2022, 12(5), 602; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12050602 - 10 May 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2238
Abstract
Lower Paleozoic black shales from Estonia, Sweden, and Russia were analyzed for major and trace elements to reconstruct the provenance, tectonic setting, and paleoweathering conditions of these shales. The black shale is highly enriched in U, V, Mo, and Pb (except in samples [...] Read more.
Lower Paleozoic black shales from Estonia, Sweden, and Russia were analyzed for major and trace elements to reconstruct the provenance, tectonic setting, and paleoweathering conditions of these shales. The black shale is highly enriched in U, V, Mo, and Pb (except in samples from Sweden where Pb is slightly enriched), slightly enriched in SiO2, Fe2O3, K2O, and TiO2 and highly depleted in CaO, Na2O, and MnO, with respect to average shales. The provenance signatures (Th/Sc versus Zr/Sc, Al2O3 versus TiO2, Zr versus TiO2 plots, and Zr/Sc ratio) of the Baltoscandian black shales suggest that they were derived from rocks of intermediate to felsic composition and from recycled sediments. The likely provenance region was the Paleoproterozoic igneous and metamorphic basement of southern central and southern Finland, which consists predominantly of felsic to intermediate metamorphic (acidic to intermediate gneisses, felsic volcanics, microcline granites and migmatites) and igneous rocks (small granitic intrusions and large rapakivi granite intrusions), and reworked older Ediacaran and Lower Cambrian sediments; however, the proportion of clastic input from these sources is not uniform in the three regions studied. The discrimination of the tectonic settings of source materials of the black shale using the SiO2 versus K2O/Na2O plot and a new discriminant method (APMdisc) favors a passive margin setting. The Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) indicates that the clastic material in the black shale of the studied regions has experienced an intense degree of chemical weathering. Weathering indices (Chemical Index of Alteration CIA and CIW) also show that the black shale has experienced significant secondary potassium enrichment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Oil Shale)
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18 pages, 5243 KiB  
Article
A Magnetic Geothermometer in Moderately Buried Shales
by Charles Aubourg, Myriam Kars, Jean-Pierre Pozzi, Martin Mazurek and Olivier Grauby
Minerals 2021, 11(9), 957; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11090957 - 31 Aug 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2302
Abstract
Shales contain magnetic minerals generally at very low concentrations. In the early stages of diagenesis, the inherited magnetic minerals are altered, while magnetic nanominerals are formed. In this study, we proposed a study of shales over a stratigraphic thickness of 1.3 km from [...] Read more.
Shales contain magnetic minerals generally at very low concentrations. In the early stages of diagenesis, the inherited magnetic minerals are altered, while magnetic nanominerals are formed. In this study, we proposed a study of shales over a stratigraphic thickness of 1.3 km from a borehole in the Paris basin (Borehole EST 433, France), and shales from the same formation (Opalinus Clay) collected in seven boreholes in the Jura molasse basin (Swiss). Magnetic measurements at experimental temperatures <30 K allowed the formation of a proxy of magnetite nanograins named PM. We showed that some of these nanograins formed around the pyrite grains, probably under the action of temperature and organic matter. PM was then compared to the maturity values of the organic matter. We found a correlation between PM and the percentage of reflectance of vitrinite. The shales from both Paris and molassic Swiss basins showed very comparable magnetic characteristics for a given maturity level. The magnetic study therefore provided constraints on the maturity level of the shales in the oil window area. Our study showed that PM can be used as a geothermometer in shales in which CaCO3 is lower than 60%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Oil Shale)
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14 pages, 3992 KiB  
Article
Geochemical Considerations from the Carboniferous Unconventional Petroleum System of SW Iberia
by Gabriel A. Barberes, Rui Pena dos Reis, Nuno L. Pimentel, André L. D. Spigolon, Paulo E. Fonseca, Przemysław Karcz, Marco C. Azevedo and Maria Teresa Barata
Minerals 2021, 11(8), 811; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11080811 - 27 Jul 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2361
Abstract
The Baixo Alentejo Flysch Group (BAFG) is an important stratigraphic unit that covers over half of the South Portuguese Zone (SPZ) depositional area, and it is composed by three main tectono-stratigraphic units: the Mértola, Mira, and Brejeira formations. All of these formations contain [...] Read more.
The Baixo Alentejo Flysch Group (BAFG) is an important stratigraphic unit that covers over half of the South Portuguese Zone (SPZ) depositional area, and it is composed by three main tectono-stratigraphic units: the Mértola, Mira, and Brejeira formations. All of these formations contain significant thicknesses of black shales and have several wide areas with 0.81 wt.%, 0.91 wt.%, and 0.72 wt.% average total organic carbon (TOC) (respectively) and thermal maturation values within gas zones (overmature). This paper is considering new data from classical methods of organic geochemistry characterization, such as TOC, Rock–Eval pyrolysis, and organic petrography, to evaluate the unconventional petroleum system from the SPZ. A total of 53 samples were collected. From the stratigraphical point of view, TOC values seem to have a random distribution. The Rock–Eval parameters point out high thermal maturation compatible with gas window (overmature zone). The samples are dominated by gas-prone extremely hydrogen-depleted type III/IV kerogen, which no longer has the potential to generate and expel hydrocarbons. The petrographic analyses positioned the thermal evolution of these samples into the end of catagenesis to metagenesis (wet to dry gas zone), with values predominantly higher than 2 %Ro (dry gas zone). The presence of thermogenic hydrocarbon fluids characterized by previous papers indicate that the BAFG from SPZ represents a senile unconventional petroleum system, working nowadays basically as a gas reservoir. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Oil Shale)
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18 pages, 4918 KiB  
Article
Geochemical Characteristics of Late Ordovician Shales in the Upper Yangtze Platform, South China: Implications for Redox Environmental Evolution
by Donglin Lin, Shuheng Tang, Zhaodong Xi, Bing Zhang and Yapei Ye
Minerals 2021, 11(7), 710; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11070710 - 30 Jun 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2068
Abstract
Changes to the redox environment of seawater in the Late Ordovician affect the process of organic matter enrichment and biological evolution. However, the evolution of redox and its underlying causes remain unclear. This paper analyzed the vertical variability of main, trace elements and [...] Read more.
Changes to the redox environment of seawater in the Late Ordovician affect the process of organic matter enrichment and biological evolution. However, the evolution of redox and its underlying causes remain unclear. This paper analyzed the vertical variability of main, trace elements and δ34Spy from a drill core section (well ZY5) in the Upper Yangtze Platform, and described the redox conditions, paleoproductivity and paleoclimate variability recorded in shale deposits of the P. pacificus zone and M. extraordinarius zone that accumulated during Wufeng Formation. The results showed that shale from well ZY5 in Late Ordovician was deposited under oxidized water environment, and there are more strongly reducing bottom water conditions of the M. extraordinarius zone compared with the P. pacificus zone. Excess silica (SiO2(exc)) and substitution index of paleoproductivity (Y) indicated that the P. pacificus zone had higher paleoproductivity whereas the M. extraordinarius zone was lower. The high productivity level controlled O2 release in the shallow water area as well as the oxidation degree of the P. pacificus zone. The decrease of productivity and the relatively stagnant water mass of the inner Yangtze Sea controlled the formation of relatively reduced water conditions in the M. extraordinarius zone. The chemical index of alteration (CIA) results suggested that palaeoclimatic conditions changed from warm and humid to cold and dry climate from the P. pacificus to the M. extraordinarius zones in the study area. A comparative analysis of the published Fe-S-C data for the Xiushan Datianba section showed that in the P. pacificus zone of the inner Yangtze Sea, warm and humid climate conditions drove high productivity, sulphate flux and low reactive iron flux, which promoted the expansion of oxic ocean-surface waters and mid-depth euxinic waters. In the M. extraordinarius zone, the cold and dry climate with significant uplift of the Xiang’e Submarine High led to the relative sea level decline, resulting in low productivity, sulfate flux and high reactive iron flux, which promoted the expansion of the mid-depth ferruginous waters and the shrinkage of oxic ocean-surface waters. The results offered new insights into the co-evolution of continents and oceans, and explained the role of continental weathering and uplift of the Xiang’e Submarine High in the exchange of sulfate flux and nutrients in the redox environment change of inner Yangtze Sea during the Late Ordovician. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Oil Shale)
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12 pages, 3108 KiB  
Article
Application of Elemental Geochemistry in High-Frequency Sequence—Stratigraphic Analysis of Lacustrine Shale
by Hongliang Wang, Zehua Zhang, Jintong Liang, Huimin Liu and Shige Shi
Minerals 2021, 11(6), 657; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11060657 - 21 Jun 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2106
Abstract
The successful development of shale gas and oil in North America has created considerable interest in shale. The analysis of genetic types, the sedimentary environment, and the mudstone development mechanism within sequences is critical for evaluating shale gas and oil exploration prospects, exploration [...] Read more.
The successful development of shale gas and oil in North America has created considerable interest in shale. The analysis of genetic types, the sedimentary environment, and the mudstone development mechanism within sequences is critical for evaluating shale gas and oil exploration prospects, exploration favorable zones, and resource potential. This study focused on the shale of Shahejie Formation in Dongying Depression of Bohai Bay Basin. Shale lithofacies division, geochemical analysis, and well-log analysis were performed for a sedimentary environment and its related elemental response characteristics’ identification. Based on the results, we concluded that the sedimentary environment of the lake basin evolved from the saltwater lake to the ambiguous lake and then the open lake to the delta. In response, we observed gradually decreasing Sr/Ba and Ca/Mg ratios and increasing Rb/Ca and Fe/Mn ratios during the whole process during the reduction of the salinity and the decrease in PH value and sediments’ transport distance. The relationship between ratio elements and high-frequency sequences was initially established within the shale strata. Our results show that ratios of Sr/Ba and Ca/Mg ratios near the sequence boundary are relatively low, and ratios of Fe/Mn and Rb/Ca are relatively high, while ratios of Sr/Ba and Ca/Mg near the flooding surface are relatively high, and ratios of Fe/Mn and Rb/Ca are relatively low. Those features can be used as a marker for high-frequency sequence division of shale strata. Our results provided a new theoretical basis and technical method for shale gas and oil exploration and development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Oil Shale)
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21 pages, 4552 KiB  
Article
Nanometer Pore Structure Characterization of Taiyuan Formation Shale in the Lin-Xing Area Based on Nitrogen Adsorption Experiments
by Chenlong Ding, Jinxian He, Hongchen Wu and Xiaoli Zhang
Minerals 2021, 11(3), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030298 - 11 Mar 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 2739
Abstract
Ordos Basin is an important continental shale gas exploration site in China. The micropore structure of the shale reservoir is of great importance for shale gas evaluation. The Taiyuan Formation of the lower Permian is the main exploration interval for this area. To [...] Read more.
Ordos Basin is an important continental shale gas exploration site in China. The micropore structure of the shale reservoir is of great importance for shale gas evaluation. The Taiyuan Formation of the lower Permian is the main exploration interval for this area. To examine the nanometer pore structures in the Taiyuan Formation shale reservoirs in the Lin-Xing area, Northern Shaanxi, the microscopic pore structure characteristics were analyzed via nitrogen adsorption experiments. The pore structure parameters, such as specific surface area, pore volume, and aperture distribution, of shale were calculated; the significance of the pore structure for shale gas storage was analyzed; and the main controlling factors of pore development were assessed. The results indicated the surface area and hole volume of the shale sample to be 0.141–2.188 m2/g and 0.001398–0.008718 cm3/g, respectively. According to the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) classification, mesopores and macropores were dominant in the pore structure, with the presence of a certain number of micropores. The adsorption curves were similar to the standard IV (a)-type isotherm line, and the hysteresis loop type was mainly similar to H3 and H4 types, indicating that most pores are dominated by open type pores, such as parallel plate-shaped pores and wedge-shaped slit pores. The micropores and mesopores provide the vast majority of the specific surface area, functioning as the main area for the adsorption of gas in the shale. The mesopores and macropores provide the vast majority of the pore volume, functioning as the main storage areas for the gas in the shale. Total organic carbon had no notable linear correlation with the total pore volume and the specific surface area. Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) had no notable correlation with the specific surface area, but did have a low “U” curve correlation with the total pore volume. There was no relationship between the quartz content and specific surface area and total pore volume. In addition, there was no notable correlation between the clay mineral content and total specific surface area and total pore volume. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Oil Shale)
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