Optics

Yb_xEr_yZnO thin films with a low concentration (x = 5%, y = 0, 1, 3%) were made on glass substrates using the spray pyrolysis method. The films were characterized through the use of specific techniques to investigate their structural, optical, and electrical properties. The XRD structural analysis of the films revealed that they are polycrystalline with a hexagonal wurtzite structure and a preferential orientation in the (002) direction. The optical characterization of the co-doped layers in the range of 200 to 800 nm revealed that co-doping had a significant impact on the values of transmission. A well-defined peak in the infrared domain centered around 980 nm was observed in photoluminescence measurements. This peak signifies the transition between the electronic levels ²F_5/2 (ground state) and ²F_7/2 (excited state), proving that photons are efficiently transferred between the ZnO matrix and the Yb³⁺ ion. All layers exhibited n-type conduction and an electrical resistivity decrease to 6.0 × 10⁻² Ω cm according to Hall effect measurements at room temperature. Full article

Microlenses are essential optics widely used in many fields. The microfluidics-assisted fabrication method provides a rapid, convenient way to manufacture microlenses. However, there is no mathematical model to describe the profile of the liquid surface. This paper provides a theoretical explanation and mathematical model for the formation of the liquid surface of different curvatures in the microholes of different shapes. A numerical model based on the finite–difference time–domain method verifies the mathematical model. Furthermore, the optical properties of the microlenses in different shapes are analyzed through the demolded microlenses. The proposed theoretical model provides an analytical way to study the properties of microlenses. Full article

Light-emitting electronic devices are widely used at present, and this increases the risk of myopia. Thus, the early identification of myopia and the prevention of further exacerbation has become an essential issue in ophthalmology. Recently, choroidal imaging has been used to assist in the early identification and prevention of high myopia due to the fact that swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) is an essential diagnostic tool in ophthalmology. This study presents a novel method to judge high myopia using the SS-OCT image dataset obtained from a university hospital. In order to relate the proposed method to the region of the SS-OCT image, the curvature analysis of an arbitrary segmented curve similar to the region of the SS-OCT is first illustrated by quadratic functions and matrix operations. Next, the curvature formula is derived and then applied to the choroidal curve obtained manually in each patient’s choroidal image. In particular, we applied the curvature analysis and its results to find the maximal curvature and average curvature of each patient’s choroidal curve. Finally, we used the maximal curvature and average curvature to evaluate high myopia. The accuracy of the proposed maximal curvature method and average curvature method in the experimental results to verify the proposed method. Full article

Wavefront sensing is an essential technique in optical imaging, adaptive optics, and atmospheric turbulence correction. Traditional wavefront reconstruction methods, including the Gerchberg–Saxton (GS) algorithm and phase diversity (PD) techniques, are often limited by issues such as low inversion accuracy, slow convergence, and the presence of multiple possible solutions. Recent developments in deep learning have led to new methods, although conventional CNN-based models still face challenges in effectively capturing global context. To overcome these limitations, we propose a Transformer-based single-shot wavefront sensing method, which directly reconstructs wavefront aberrations from focal plane intensity images. Our model integrates a Normalization-based Attention Module (NAM) into the CoAtNet architecture, which strengthens feature extraction and leads to more accurate wavefront characterization. Experimental results in both simulated and real-world conditions indicate that our method achieves a 4.5% reduction in normalized wavefront error (NWE) compared to ResNet34, suggesting improved performance over conventional deep learning models. Additionally, by leveraging Walsh function modulation, our approach resolves the multiple-solution problem inherent in phase retrieval techniques. The proposed model achieves high accuracy, fast convergence, and simplicity in implementation, making it a promising solution for wavefront sensing applications. Full article

Standard endoscopy of vocal folds is in general limited to two-dimensional imaging. Laser-based 3D imaging offers not only absolute measurements but also the possibility of assessing all three spatial directions. However, due to human inter-individuality, a fixed grid configuration (with fixed edge length and spot size) does not necessarily provide the best coverage and resolution. We present a liquid lens optical design for a diffractive spot array generator with dynamic adjustment capabilities for both array size and spot size. The tunable nature of the liquid lenses enables precise control over the spot array generated by a diffractive optical element (DOE). The first liquid lens controls the spot divergence in the observation plane, while the second liquid lens adjusts the zoom factor. The optical configuration provides a dynamic range of 1.8 with respect to array size, significantly enhancing adaptability in imaging across various applications. Full article

We present an empirical model for the cross-section of low concentration acetone gas in the range of 1671.5–1675 nm that encompasses the absorption band of the methyl stretch overtone. This model is experimentally validated with cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) measurements performed with a calibration gas and its diluted mixtures with breath samples. Particular attention is paid to accurate wavelength measurements with an interferometric wavemeter. The theoretical framework for analysis of gas mixtures with several absorbing species is presented. We show that the proposed empirical model can be used to accurately determine the concentration of acetone vapor in human breath samples. The comparison of the acetone absorption cross-section with previous results is also presented. Full article

Triplet–triplet transfer photochemical reactions are essential in many biological, chemical, and photonic applications. Here, the Pd-octaethylporphyrin sensitizer along with triplet–triplet annihilator (TTA) active 9,10-diphenylantracenes (DPA) and the related substituted variants in low concentrations were examined. A full experimental approach is presented for finding the necessary rate parameters with statistical standard deviation parameters. This was achieved by solving the pertinent non-analytical kinetic differential equation and fitting it to the experimental time-resolved photoluminescence of both slow fluorescence and sensitizer phosphorescence. The efficiency of the triplet–triplet energy transfer rate was found to be around 90% in THF but only around 75% in toluene. This appears to follow from the shorter lifetime of the sensitizer triplet in toluene. Moreover, the TTA transfer rate was on average more than 40% in THF toluene whereas a considerably lower value around 20–30% was found for toluene. This originated in an order of magnitude higher solvent quenching rate using toluene, based on the analysis of the delayed fluorescence decay traces. These are also higher than the statistically expected 1/9 TTA efficiency but in accordance with recent results in the literature, that attributed these high values to an inverse intersystem crossing process. In addition, quantum chemical calculations were carried out to reveal the pertinent excited triplet molecular orbitals of the lowest triplet excited state for a series of substituted DPAs, in comparison with the singlet ground state. Conclusively, these states distribute mainly in an anthracene ring in all compounds being in the range 1.64–1.65 eV above the ground state. The TTA efficiency was found to vary depending on the DPA annihilator substitution scheme and found to be smaller in THF. This is likely because the molecular framework over which the T1 excited molecular orbitals distribute is less sensitive for a longer lifetime of the annihilator triplet state. Full article

A wide band range can cover more of the characteristic spectral lines of substances, and thus analyze the structure and composition of substances more accurately. In order to broaden the band range of spectral instruments, an ultra-wide-band Fourier transform infrared spectrometer is designed. The incident light of the spectrometer is constrained by a secondary imaging scheme, and switchable light sources and detectors are set to achieve an ultra-wide band coverage. A compact and highly stable double-moving mirror swing interferometer is adopted to generate optical path difference, and a controller is used to stabilize the swing of the moving mirrors. A distributed design of digital system integration and analog system integration is adopted to achieve a lightweight and low-power-consumption spectrometer. High-speed data acquisition and a transmission interface are applied to improve the real-time performance. Further, a series of experiments are performed to test the performance of the spectrometer. Finally, the experimental results show that the spectral range of the ultra-wide-band Fourier transform infrared spectrometer covers 0.770–200 μm, with an accurate wave number, a spectral resolution of 0.25 cm⁻¹, and a signal-to-noise ratio better than 50,000:1. Full article

This paper introduces a novel approach to the design of multi-element planar solar concentrators, aimed at optimizing solar energy harvesting systems. The proposed methodology is based on the integration of identical unit cells, strategically arranged to enhance solar radiation capture efficiency and achieve high angular selectivity. Mathematical modeling of the operational principles of the unit cells forms the foundation for determining production parameters and streamlining the concentrator assembly process. Particular emphasis is placed on analyzing key performance metrics, such as solar radiation concentration and optical efficiency, thereby advancing the understanding of the relationship between design parameters and energy output. The study employs MATLAB R2022b and ZemaxOpticStudio 13 software to model the solar concentrator, identifying the optimal cell configuration to achieve a geometric concentration ratio of 3.45, with angular selectivity ranging from 23° to 90°. This research contributes significantly to the field of solar concentrator technology, offering a pathway for more efficient utilization of renewable energy sources and improved adaptability to diverse operating conditions. Full article

Repeatable and reliable assessment of corneal biomechanics with spatial resolution remains a challenge. Vibrational Optical Computerized Tomography (V-OCT), based on sound-wave elastography, has made it possible to investigate the natural resonant modes of the cornea and obtain the elastic moduli non-invasively. This pilot study presents a characterization of four corneal vibrational modes from aberrometric, geometrical, and biomechanical approaches in the living human cornea of five healthy volunteers by combining a corneal sound-wave generator, dual Placido–Scheimpflug corneal imaging, and the Ocular Response Analyzer (ORA) devices. Sound-induced corneal wavefront aberration maps were reconstructed as a function of sound frequency and isolated from the natural state. While maps of low-order aberrations (LOA) revealed symmetric geometrical patterns, those corresponding to high-order aberrations (HOA) showed complex non-symmetric patterns. Corneal geometry was evaluated by reconstructing corneal elevation maps through biconical fitting, and the elastic and viscous components were calculated by applying the standard linear solid model to the ORA measurements. The results showed that sound-wave modulation can increase high-order corneal aberrations significantly. Two frequencies rendered the corneal shape more prolate (50 Hz) and oblate (150 Hz) with respect to the baseline, respectively. Finally, both the elastic and viscous properties are sensitive to sound-induced vibrational modes, which can also modulate the corneal stress-strain response. The cornea exhibits natural resonant modes influenced by its optical, structural, and biomechanical properties. Full article

The study of the refractive index of traditional lenses is one of the foundational topics in the field of optics. The refractive index of a lens determines its ability to refract and focus light, making it a key parameter in optical design and applications. For the measurement of the refractive index of blind samples of finished lenses, this paper proposes a measurement method based on the use of a focal length measuring instrument and an aspheric profilometer to measure the surface shape data of the front and back surfaces of the lens. This method combines curve fitting algorithms and curvature radius fitting algorithms, ultimately reconstructing the lens model using Zemax and back-calculating the refractive index of the lens. For the samples employed in this paper, the measurement accuracy of the focal length can achieve 1.06%, the fitting accuracy of the curvature radius can reach 0.138%, and the recovery accuracy of the refractive index can attain 6.303 × 10⁻⁴%. Full article

In this paper, a high-linear-sensitivity fiber curvature sensor based on the sphere-shaped misaligned structure (SSMS) with few-mode fiber (FMF) and single-mode fiber (SMF) was proposed and demonstrated. A spherical structure was prepared at one end of a few-mode fiber, which could effectively excite higher-order modes and generate interference in the misaligned cascade. When external environmental parameters changed, the resonance peaks formed by intermodal interference were displaced, and the shifts generated by different resonant peaks were also different. The experimental results show that the maximum curvature sensitivity was −2.220 nm/m⁻¹, and the linear fitting coefficient reached up to 0.991, which is an extremely high sensitivity among wavelength-modulated curvature sensors. Meanwhile, the strain sensitivity of the sensor was as low as 7.99 pm/μ$\overline{\mathsf{\epsilon }}$, and the temperature sensitivity was 3.958 pm/°C, which is a low temperature sensitivity and low strain sensitivity, and solves the cross-sensitivity problem. With advantages of simple manufacture, low cost, and favorable stability, the sensor is expected to be one of the best candidate instruments for measuring curvature and inclination. Full article

Time synchronization is an important technology in synchronous communication systems to ensure the accuracy of data transmission. Precise time synchronization allows the receiver to correctly interpret the signal at the correct moment. However, as communication rates increase and application scenarios diversify, pulse signal reception quality is often affected by factors such as noise interference and clock stability. In order to address these challenges, we propose a pulse signal recovery method utilizing the least squares algorithm to complete time compensation. By fitting and optimizing the received signal, we can obtain estimated values that closely approximate the actual time, thereby achieving enhanced precision in time synchronization. The results demonstrate that this method effectively reduces estimation errors, improving the system’s time synchronization accuracy to the $ns$ level. This method not only provides an effective solution for enhancing time synchronization precision but also lays the foundation for time synchronization performance in the future. Full article

Pork adulteration detection in beef is important due to health, economic, and religious concerns. This study explored the use of a Shortwave Near Infrared–Hyperspectral Imaging (SWNIR–HSI) system which captured spectral data across 894–2504 nm to detect adulteration of pork in beef. In this study, minced pork in various concentrations ranging from 0–50% (w/w) were added to pure minced beef. Spectra obtained from the SWNIR–HSI were used to develop a partial least square regression (PLSR) model. The study compared the PLSR results between full wavelengths (variables) and selected wavelengths obtained via the variable importance in projection (VIP) method. The best results from the full-wavelength PLSR model yielded a prediction accuracy (R²P) of 0.940 and a standard error of prediction (SEP) of 4.633%, while using VIP-selected wavelengths improved performance, with R²P of 0.955 and SEP of 3.811%. The study demonstrates the potency of SWNIR–HIS, particularly with selected wavelengths, as an effective and nondestructive tool for accurately predicting pork adulteration levels in beef. Full article

Additive manufacturing (AM) is a fast-growing technology that supports the rapid fabrication of prototypes. Already, employing AM technologies in early product development stages can help to accelerate the time from conceptualisation phase to the market entry. Furthermore, advances in the field of materials, such as highly transparent resins in the visible wavelength spectrum, also open application potentials for the design and fabrication of optical components. Three highly transparent resins from different suppliers are studied in this work regarding their influence on the geometrical and optical properties of additively manufactured components. The different materials were processed using a masked stereolithography 3D printer. Geometrical and optical properties of the generated test samples were analysed by means of laser scanning microscopy and spectrophotometry, respectively. A clear correlation between optical properties of the resin and the solidified samples was identified. It was further found that while spin coating does not significantly affect the geometrical properties, a strong influence on the resulting optical properties could be observed. The highest transmission properties, in the range of up to 90%, were determined for samples that were spin-coated on both surfaces. Thus, applying a spin coating operation to additively manufactured optical components is recommended for the highest transmission properties. Full article

This paper outlines the design and fabrication of a portable optomechatronic system based on the theta-2theta configuration, which explores various optical characterization techniques for transparent materials and dielectric thin films. These techniques include Brewster angle and Abelès-Brewster angle measurements, critical angle measurements, and the surface plasmon resonance technique. The system consists of a mechanical assembly of rotating stages, a semiconductor laser, a photodiode connected to a data acquisition card, and a user interface for controlling the stepper motor rotation stages. Utilizing a BK7 substrate, the motorized stage achieved a resolution of 0.010. The Brewster angle measured was 56.550, with a refractive index (n) of 1.5137. The relative error obtained was Δn/n = 3.82 × 10⁻⁴, with a sensitivity of 164.27 RIU/degree and an accuracy of 0.37/degree. Furthermore, the discrepancies between theoretical and experimental refractive indices for different prisms at 639 nm ranged from ±7 × 10⁻⁴ to ±73 × 10⁻⁴. After testing various samples, the system demonstrated its capability to perform fast, precise, and non-invasive measurements. Its portability allows for use in diverse environments and applications. Full article

Airy beams showing curved paths have found extensive applications in fields such as optical trapping, biomedical analysis, and material processing. Despite their utility, dynamic control of Airy beams poses a significant challenge. This work investigates the experimental realization of dynamic steering of Airy beams by utilizing computer-generated holograms with phase-amplitude encoding on a phase-only spatial light modulator (SLM). We successfully generated and controlled Airy beams by imposing dynamic phase masks that manipulated both the phase and amplitude of the field, which sets our approach apart from conventional methods with only phase manipulation. By directly encoding in situ such a hologram and transferring it to an SLM, we are able to control the initial position and rotational orientation of Airy beams without relying on mechanical movement or traditional optical setups involving lenses and apertures. Generating Airy beams in any initial position and rotational direction is anticipated to significantly impact applications such as optical trapping, optical communication, and biomedical imaging by providing a flexible platform for dynamic Airy beam manipulation. Full article

Digital image correlation (DIC) is a non-contact measurement technique used to evaluate surface deformation of objects. Typically, pointwise moving least squares (PMLS) fitting is applied to process the noisy data from DIC to obtain an accurate strain field. In this study, a self-adaptive pointwise moving least squares (SPMLS) method was developed to optimize the process of window size selection, thereby attaining superior accuracy in measurements. The premise of this method is that the noise in the displacement field follows white Gaussian noise. Under this assumption, it analyses the random errors and systematic errors of the PMLS method under different calculation window sizes. The optimal size of the calculation window is determined by minimizing the errors. Subsequently, the strain field is computed based on the optimized calculation window. The results were compared with a typical PMLS method. Whether calculating low-gradient strain fields or high-gradient strain fields, the computational accuracy of SPMLS is close to the optimal accuracy of PMLS. This study effectively addresses the inherent challenge of manually selecting window size in the PMLS method. Full article

Phase holography is a critical optical imaging and information processing technique with applications ranging from microscopy to optical communications. However, optimizing phase hologram generation remains a significant challenge due to the non-convex nature of the optimization problem. This paper presents a novel multiplane optimization approach for phase hologram generation to minimize the reconstruction error across multiple focal planes. We significantly improve holographic reconstruction quality by integrating advanced machine learning algorithms like RMSprop and Adam with GPU acceleration. The proposed method utilizes TensorFlow to implement custom propagation layers, optimizing the phase hologram to reduce errors at strategically selected distances. Full article